GUIDELINES

In this section I consider carefully, and comment on,  the examiner’s report and mark scheme for a January 2013 question which links virtue ethics to emulating the example of virtuous people, and asks us to consider whether this is the ‘most useful’ aspect of the theory.

‘Following the example of virtuous people is the most useful aspect of Virtue Ethics.’ Discuss. OCR G582Q3 Jan 2013

Summary of Indicative content

AO1 Explain and analyse

Begin by explaining the Virtue Ethics (VE) of Aristotle (A) and may also include some modern versions such as MacIntyre, Hursthouse, Slote and Gilligan.

Say that VE is agent rather than act-centred. Agent is the word for a person acting in a moral capacity. To be clearer we need to explain how virtues come from character and character is built by emulation of heroes, experience (phronesis) and education. So actions stem from who we are, not rules we obey. This gives virtue ethics a flexibility and makes it a lifelong quest to build wisdom.

Candidates may explain idea of the Golden Mean, the acquiring of virtues through practice and the example of virtuous people. PB – The golden mean is an interesting if slightly problematic idea as we have to find the right form of courage in different situations and apply it int he right way. Aristotle’s list of virtues includes some interesting ones we don;t think fo as virtues in our own society – worth exploring magnificence and pride as virtues. What do they imply? What is a wise and appropriate form of magnificence? Note – the golden mean does not imply moderation as it is appropriate to be, for example extremely angry about violence or injustice. See the extract on the website from Robert Arrington’s book (in the extracts document).

Give examples of how the virtues are learnt and internalised so that virtuous character is developed. PB – Explain phronesis and how it is built – Professor Schwartz’s lecture on TED is brilliant on this point.

Explain that VE helps people achieve a certain telos – eudaimonia. PB – eudamaimonia means the flourishing life, one that grows organically towards perfection. It always has a personal and social dimension, but begs the question – whose perfection? Aristotle’s idea of perfection gave no status to women or slaves. In fact Athenian democracy was more like a gentleman’s club with decisions vested in relatively few distinguished men. Is this ‘perfection’?!

AO2 Evaluate, assess, qualify (‘on the other hand’) or contrast (‘compared with utilitarianism etc’)

Role of virtuous people is central – it motivates us to be good and we acquire virtues by imitation.

Good character is different from rules – it allows us to make right choices.

BUT ‘on the other hand’ it is not enough simply to copy someone as it is not possible to now what someone would do in every situation. PB – this is a central point as VE requires the central moral virtue of phronesis or practical wisdom (right judgement). Phronesis is an intellectual virtue of judgement which Aristotle argues controls unruly passions and desires – a bit like Plato’s charioteer controlling the two bucking horses. It is the virtue which makes morality tick.

We need to practise the virtues – what does this mean? Practising the virtues is ‘more important’ than copying the virtues.

We need to integrate the virtues into our everyday lives. PB – VE is criticised for being impractical. But philosophers like Barry Schwartz would disagree completely – see his TED lecture hyperlinked in the START HERE secton of the VE part of the site. Professor Schwartz summarises phronesis neatly by saying “moral will plus moral skill produces wisdom”. Virtues are best seen as skills.

“Candidates may point out that it is difficult to know exactly who is virtuous as we cannot be sure of people’s motives”. PB – motives are hidden, but the virtue of integrity (consistency) is surely central tot he idea of virtue. The aim should always be to build the flourishing individual within he flourishing community – we have a personal and a social motive in VE (contrast this with utilitarians such as Mill who struggle to convince us that we should have a social conscience and not just be selfish hedonists).

Marking guidance

‘Following the example of virtuous people is the most useful aspect of Virtue Ethics.’ Discuss.

Candidates need to focus on which aspect of Virtue Ethics is the most useful. PB – always discuss and unpack the question before you and produce your own line not he question – a key skill for An A grade. For example, VE proceeds to build virtues by Experience, Emulation and Education (I call these the three Es of VE) – but which of these is most useful and why? Or do they interrelate in some way? You decide but then produce an argument which considers whether emulating your heroes is the ‘most useful’. Useful in what sense of the word?

There is no need to compare virtue ethics to other ethical theories. PB – the way the question is worded this is undoubtedly true. However, it would not be entirely irrelevant, perhaps, to explain that unlike utilitarian ethics there is no need to assess consequences here because the ultimate end of VE is to have a second nature or virtuous instinct that exercises right judgement effortlessly, joyously and instantly!

Top level could come from just looking at Aristotelian Virtue Ethics or from a range of views including modern and Aristotle as long as the focus is on virtue ethics specifically. PB – this is a fair way of assessing as there is no specific requirement to contrast Aristotle and MacIntyre or any other modern VEs – but always prepare both ancient and modern VE as you won’t then be caught out by a differently worded question.

Examiner’s Report

There were some excellent responses to this question which showed a clear level of knowledge and understanding with regard to the Aristotelian, Thomist PB – the VE of Thomas Aquinas – called ‘Thomist’ – develops the Christian virtues such as faith, hope and love and distinguishes between acquired and infused virtues. Infused virtues are those given as a gift of the Holy Spirit to Christian believers alone as an act of grace  and modern versions of Virtue Ethics. Such candidates were also able to focus on the key words of the question as to whether the example of the virtuous person is ‘the most’ useful aspect of Virtue Ethics. PB – it’s important to focus and define, elaborate, interpret the key words in any A level question. Here ‘most useful’ requires careful handling. useful for what and to whom? Remember VE has a social dimension, always, and so useful could imply ‘helping to build a stable society – although a key here is who is defined as morally worthy as Aristotle excluded slaves and women.

Some candidates were able to discuss this question by contrasting the concept of such a role model with other aspects of Virtue Ethics such as the Golden Mean or Eudaimonia being more or less useful.

Candidates were, in general, able to question the concept of the virtuous person being a role model given that such a person might have perceived failings in other parts of their lives. Some candidates were hindered in their response to this question by a lack of clear knowledge as to the tenets of Virtue Ethics. (PB – such tenets include correct use and understanding of key terms in VE such as agent-centred, phronesis, golden mean, eudaimonia and the ways that virtue ethics develops by emulation, education and experience (three Es) – essentially some combination of these where one alone will not be sufficient.)

Successful responses also considered modern approaches to Virtue Ethics, although some that focused on classical Virtue Ethics were still able to achieve the higher marks. (What makes, for example, MacIntyre’s approach different from Aristotle’s? One major way is that MacIntyre rejects Aristotle’s metaphysics – the idea that all beings have a true purpose and that to fulfil our true purpose requires a certain type of reasoning. This is explained in my recent book on Virtue Ethics).