GCE Religious Studies 572: AS Religious Ethics © OCR

PB – I would strongly recommend that you get a copy of my How to Get an A Grade in Ethics and the book by the same title for Philosophy of Religion. Available here. I update this in January every year after discussing the latest exam. Why? Because many students have not done an in-depth analysis of the exam syllabus and so are surprised by the questions that are set. And secondly, I analyse past questions to get the mind of the examiner and predict future questions with the relevant ‘twists’. If every student had a copy in their hand I am sure they woud do better – we have also written coursebooks now for nearly every syllabus area which greatly helps understanding. At least get a library set! Availablehere.

Whilst the content of the specification is divided into two sections – Ethical Theory and Applied Ethics – it is important that these two sections be closely linked.

Thus it is essential to study medical ethics and war and peace in the light of the ethical stances found in Situation Ethics, Kant’s theory, Utilitarianism, Natural Law Theory, and religious ethics.

Some understanding of the concepts of absolutist or relativist morality should underpin the whole approach.

Candidates should be able to apply the theories to any given moral issue e.g. when considering abortion, euthanasia, IVF or genetic engineering, it is necessary to be able to evaluate the problems raised against the background of ethical theory. It is also important to introduce religious methods of decision-making, and this need not be confined to a Christian approach.

Candidates are required, therefore, to relate both non-religious and religious ethical systems, not only to each other, but also to the practical issues in the specification. Teachers should ensure that candidates are aware of this requirement.

There are a range of suitable textbooks that cover both Ethical Theory and Applied Ethics – Ethical Studies 2nd Edition (Bowie), Religious Ethics for AS and A2 (Oliphant), The Puzzle of Ethics (Vardy and Grolsch), Ethics (Pojman) and Practical Ethics (Singer). All of these offer useful coverage, but in certain places they need to be complemented by the other recommended books on specific topics. PB – I would recommend the series of books specially commissioned by this website, all written by experienced teachers and pitched just right for an A grade. You can find them here.

Religious Ethics

Since this topic underpins the rest of the module, candidates should try to understand how ethical theories depend upon the adoption of either an absolutist and objective view of ethics (deontological) or a relativist and subjective view (teleological).

Discussion is found in chapter 2 of Oliphant’s Religious Ethics for AS and A2, chapter 2 of Pojman’s Ethics, and in chapters 5, 6 and 7 of Geisler’s Christian Ethics. Candidates should understand that Kant, Natural Law Theory and certain religious theories tend towards or are avowedly absolutist, whereas others, i.e. Utilitarianism are more relativist. PB – you need to handle this comment carefully – to what extent Natural law is absolutist is the key question , and what we mean by calling utilitarianism ‘relativist’.

Teachers should ensure that candidates understand that even the more relativist theories have an absolutist element. It will be helpful for candidates to be able to discuss the advantages of a strict ethical code and the need for an ideal morality but also the need to consider each situation and the diversity of ethics in different cultures.

Consideration should then be given to how these different approaches would affect attitudes towards practical topics.

Ethical Theories: Natural Law

• Natural law

Candidates should understand the origins of Natural Law in Aristotle, but later championed by Aquinas, who uses the term ‘Natural Law’ to refer to the moral law. It will be helpful to understand that it is a deductive theory, starting with basic principles and from these deducing the right action in a particular situation. It should also be explained as broadly deontological – the motive for the action and the action itself, not the outcomes determine whether it is right or wrong. By using our reason we can discover precepts or laws, which if followed enable us to act  accordance with our true nature and so in accordance with our final purpose.

Both the strengths and weaknesses of Natural Law need to be examined, and the extent to which it is a basis for traditional Christian morality. Candidates should have a good understanding of the primary and secondary precepts and how they apply to the practical problems in the specification.

As well as the textbooks mentioned above, other useful resources for Natural Law are to be

found in Christian Ethics (Hoose). Aquinas’ writings can be found at: www.newadvent.org/summa

Exercises on Aquinas and Natural Law by Gensler can be found at: www.jcu.edu/philosophy/gensler/ethics.htm

Ethical Theories: Kantian Ethics

• Kantian ethics

Candidates need to understand Kant’s emphasis on duty, obligation and the importance of doing duty for its own sake. The difference between the Hypothetical and the Categorical Imperatives and the various formulations of the Categorical Imperative: Universalisability; not treating others as a means to an end and living in a kingdom of ends. It is also important that students understand that Kant needs to postulate the existence of God, freedom and immortality. They also need to study his rejection of Consequentialism (as in Utilitarianism), the strengths of such a straightforward theory, based on reason and aiming to treat everyone fairly, but also the weaknesses: its rigidity and the conflicts of duty an how universalisation can be used to justify almost anything, without giving any guidance on what to do in particular situations. Candidates should then consider how this theory might apply to the practical problems in Section Two.

As well as the textbooks mentioned above, other useful resources for Natural Law, with exercises and criticisms, are to be found in Moral Problems (Palmer).

 

Ethical Theories: Utilitarianism

• Utilitarianism

Candidates should understand Utilitarianism as a teleological and consequential system. They should have an understanding of the principle of utility, and the differences between Bentham and Mill.

The use of the hedonic calculus and the issue of quality versus quantity of happiness should be considered, as well as higher and lower pleasures. Candidates also need to know the difference between Act and Rule Utilitarianism, and strong versus weak Rule Utilitarianism.

Preference Utilitarianism from Peter Singer should also be explained – not counting our own preferences as greater than those of any other and taking account of all the people affected by an action.

The discussion of strengths and weaknesses could include the importance of happiness or pleasure, its democratic nature and the value we give in decision making to the consequences of our actions, but also the difficulty in predicting these consequences, the ignoring of duty and the value of the individual, and the lack of protection for the minority.

As well as the textbooks mentioned above, Utilitarianism by Smart & Williams offers a modern discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of the theory.

Ethical Theories: Religious Ethics

• Religious Ethics – a study of the ethics of the religion chosen by the candidate

It is not specified which religion is studied. Teachers are free to study the ethics of any world religion; however, most text books discuss Christian Ethics. If candidates are studying ChristianEthics, it is important that they are aware that there is a huge variation in approaches to ethical decision making among different Christian groups. This diversity means that it is not possible to generalise about Christian beliefs about moral issues.  Examination questions can, therefore, be approached in two ways: with reference to biblical texts and teachings; or with reference to an ethical theory which is essentially Christian.

Teachers should compare religious ethics with other ethical systems such as Utilitarianism, Kant’s theory and may also consider contemporary humanist ideas. The principles and religious methods of ethical decision-making such as the Divine Command Theory and the Natural Law

Theory could provide students with the foundation for this approach.

Applied Ethics

Candidates should be encouraged to understand how ethical theories and systems might be applied to practical issues throughout the module, and also to be able to show what a religious response to the issues might be. They could use The New Dictionary of Christian Ethics as a reference book.

In the AS specification the issues to be studied are concerned with human life, and the text books recommended above have chapters on most of the problems.  They are also discussed in Causing Death and Saving Lives (Glover) and Issues of Life and Death (Wilcockson) More

detail is found in Bioethics –an Anthology (Kuhse and Singer), Ethics in Practice – An Anthology (Lafolette), Rethinking Life and Death (Singer), A Brave New World (Deanne-Drummond),Playing God (Peters), and for the right to a child there is the book that accompanied the BBC documentary series A Child Against All Odds (Winston).

War and peace are discussed well in the above books, also in Ethics, Killing and War (Norman) and Issues of Life and Death (Wilcockson).

• Abortion; the right to a child

Candidates should be aware of the many ethical issues raised by abortion – the most important being whether the foetus is a person, or a potential person. The criteria of personhood from different philosophers can be examined.

Candidates need to understand the issues surrounding the sanctity of life, and again this hinges on when life is believed to begin. It might be helpful to explore the difference between a strong sanctity of life stance and a weak sanctity of life stance, as well as the strengths of the argument: valuing all human life equally and giving all equal dignity; and the weaknesses: the challenges to imago dei from natural selection; the priority given to human over animal life and the conflicts of duty between the sanctity of life of the mother and that of the foetus.

Discussions about the right to a child cover issues such as whether a child is a gift or a right, the process of IVF, the involvement of a third party, and the moral status of the foetus. The candidates need some understanding of the different reproductive technologies and discuss the questions of who actually has a right to a child.

It is most important that candidates are able to apply the different ethical theories to the right to a child. Candidates need to be able to compare these different views on Abortion and the right to a child and discuss their strengths and weaknesses.

Euthanasia

Candidates should be aware of the many ethical issues raised by euthanasia: whether it is always wrong to kill, whether killing is the same as letting die and whether we have the right to die. The issue of personhood is also important, as are questions of personal autonomy and the quality of life.

Candidates need to be able to apply the different ethical theories to euthanasia.

• Genetic engineering

Genetic Engineering is a controversial topic and raises many ethical issues. Candidates need to have some understanding of the science, but it is most important that they understand the different ethical issues raised by Genetic Engineering. For instance, it might be helpful to know the difference between Somatic Gene Therapy and Germ Line Gene Therapy, and have some understanding of how animals are genetically altered and GM crops. It is, however, a vast subject and candidates do not need a detailed understanding of Genetic Engineering; the emphasis is on the application of the ethical theories.

Candidates might consider ethical questions such as whether altering genes is ‘playing God’, whether it is right to select genes to prevent or cure genetic diseases, the possible consequences of genetic testing and screening, the use of embryo or adult stem cells and whether the possibility of cures outweighs the risks.

Case studies can be very helpful in order to illustrate the different forms of genetic engineering – these can be found in newspapers and on the BBC website.

Human Embryo Research raises ethical questions such as whether the embryo is a person, whether the benefits outweigh the destruction of embryos, whether there are alternatives to using embryos and whether it is acceptable to create embryos for research.

Although no detailed knowledge is required, some understanding of how stem cells can be used and the ethical issues involved will be helpful.

• War and peace

Candidates need to understand that many issues arise from Just War Theory. They may start with the approaches to Just war from Augustine and Aquinas and then possibly examine other attempts to refine and improve the theory up to the 20th century. It would be good if candidates considered applying Just War Theory to recent wars, without too much historical and political detail, in order to assess its strengths and weaknesses.

Candidates also need to consider the approaches of the different forms of pacifism and even how some consider war to be a necessary evil.

For Just War candidates need to know that this covers going to war (jus ad bellum), the conduct of the war (jus in bello) and the ending of the war (jus post bellum). Candidates could discuss whether Just War criteria are still applicable today with modern methods of warfare.

Candidates could examine the different motivations for pacifism both religious and secular, as well as the example of individuals and organisations that have supported the pacifist view point.

As well as examining the strengths and weaknesses of Just War Theory and pacifism, candidates also need to be able to apply the different ethical theories to the problem of war.