Nicomachean Ethics
By Aristotle

Supreme good, intermediate and final goods

BOOK I

1

Every art and every inquiry, and similarly every action and pursuit,
is thought to aim at some good; and for this reason the good has rightly
been declared to be that at which all things aim. But a certain difference
is found among ends; some are activities, others are products apart
from the activities that produce them. Where there are ends apart
from the actions, it is the nature of the products to be better than
the activities. Now, as there are many actions, arts, and sciences,
their ends also are many; the end of the medical art is health, that
of shipbuilding a vessel, that of strategy victory, that of economics
wealth. But where such arts fall under a single capacity- as bridle-making
and the other arts concerned with the equipment of horses fall under
the art of riding, and this and every military action under strategy,
in the same way other arts fall under yet others- in all of these
the ends of the master arts are to be preferred to all the subordinate
ends; for it is for the sake of the former that the latter are pursued.
It makes no difference whether the activities themselves are the ends
of the actions, or something else apart from the activities, as in
the case of the sciences just mentioned.

2

If, then, there is some end of the things we do, which we desire for
its own sake (everything else being desired for the sake of this),
and if we do not choose everything for the sake of something else
(for at that rate the process would go on to infinity, so that our
desire would be empty and vain), clearly this must be the good and
the chief good. Will not the knowledge of it, then, have a great influence
on life? Shall we not, like archers who have a mark to aim at, be
more likely to hit upon what is right? If so, we must try, in outline
at least, to determine what it is, and of which of the sciences or
capacities it is the object. It would seem to belong to the most authoritative
art and that which is most truly the master art. And politics appears
to be of this nature; for it is this that ordains which of the sciences
should be studied in a state, and which each class of citizens should
learn and up to what point they should learn them; and we see even
the most highly esteemed of capacities to fall under this, e.g. strategy,
economics, rhetoric; now, since politics uses the rest of the sciences,
and since, again, it legislates as to what we are to do and what we
are to abstain from, the end of this science must include those of
the others, so that this end must be the good for man. For even if
the end is the same for a single man and for a state, that of the
state seems at all events something greater and more complete whether
to attain or to preserve; though it is worth while to attain the end
merely for one man, it is finer and more godlike to attain it for
a nation or for city-states. These, then, are the ends at which our
inquiry aims, since it is political science, in one sense of that
term.

3
Our discussion will be adequate if it has as much clearness as the
subject-matter admits of, for precision is not to be sought for alike
in all discussions, any more than in all the products of the crafts.
Now fine and just actions, which political science investigates, admit
of much variety and fluctuation of opinion, so that they may be thought
to exist only by convention, and not by nature. And goods also give
rise to a similar fluctuation because they bring harm to many people;
for before now men have been undone by reason of their wealth, and
others by reason of their courage. We must be content, then, in speaking
of such subjects and with such premisses to indicate the truth roughly
and in outline, and in speaking about things which are only for the
most part true and with premisses of the same kind to reach conclusions
that are no better. In the same spirit, therefore, should each type
of statement be received; for it is the mark of an educated man to
look for precision in each class of things just so far as the nature
of the subject admits; it is evidently equally foolish to accept probable
reasoning from a mathematician and to demand from a rhetorician scientific
proofs.

Now each man judges well the things he knows, and of these he is a
good judge. And so the man who has been educated in a subject is a
good judge of that subject, and the man who has received an all-round
education is a good judge in general. Hence a young man is not a proper
hearer of lectures on political science; for he is inexperienced in
the actions that occur in life, but its discussions start from these
and are about these; and, further, since he tends to follow his passions,
his study will be vain and unprofitable, because the end aimed at
is not knowledge but action. And it makes no difference whether he
is young in years or youthful in character; the defect does not depend
on time, but on his living, and pursuing each successive object, as
passion directs. For to such persons, as to the incontinent, knowledge
brings no profit; but to those who desire and act in accordance with
a rational principle knowledge about such matters will be of great
benefit.

These remarks about the student, the sort of treatment to be expected,
and the purpose of the inquiry, may be taken as our preface.

4

Let us resume our inquiry and state, in view of the fact that all
knowledge and every pursuit aims at some good, what it is that we
say political science aims at and what is the highest of all goods
achievable by action. Verbally there is very general agreement; for
both the general run of men and people of superior refinement say
that it is happiness, and identify living well and doing well with
being happy; but with regard to what happiness is they differ, and
the many do not give the same account as the wise. For the former
think it is some plain and obvious thing, like pleasure, wealth, or
honour; they differ, however, from one another- and often even the
same man identifies it with different things, with health when he
is ill, with wealth when he is poor; but, conscious of their ignorance,
they admire those who proclaim some great ideal that is above their
comprehension. Now some thought that apart from these many goods there
is another which is self-subsistent and causes the goodness of all
these as well. To examine all the opinions that have been held were
perhaps somewhat fruitless; enough to examine those that are most
prevalent or that seem to be arguable.

Let us not fail to notice, however, that there is a difference between
arguments from and those to the first principles. For Plato, too,
was right in raising this question and asking, as he used to do, ‘are
we on the way from or to the first principles?’ There is a difference,
as there is in a race-course between the course from the judges to
the turning-point and the way back. For, while we must begin with
what is known, things are objects of knowledge in two senses- some
to us, some without qualification. Presumably, then, we must begin
with things known to us. Hence any one who is to listen intelligently
to lectures about what is noble and just, and generally, about the
subjects of political science must have been brought up in good habits.
For the fact is the starting-point, and if this is sufficiently plain
to him, he will not at the start need the reason as well; and the
man who has been well brought up has or can easily get startingpoints.
And as for him who neither has nor can get them, let him hear the
words of Hesiod:

Far best is he who knows all things himself;
Good, he that hearkens when men counsel right;
But he who neither knows, nor lays to heart
Another’s wisdom, is a useless wight.
5

Let us, however, resume our discussion from the point at which we
digressed. To judge from the lives that men lead, most men, and men
of the most vulgar type, seem (not without some ground) to identify
the good, or happiness, with pleasure; which is the reason why they
love the life of enjoyment. For there are, we may say, three prominent
types of life- that just mentioned, the political, and thirdly the
contemplative life. Now the mass of mankind are evidently quite slavish
in their tastes, preferring a life suitable to beasts, but they get
some ground for their view from the fact that many of those in high
places share the tastes of Sardanapallus. A consideration of the prominent
types of life shows that people of superior refinement and of active
disposition identify happiness with honour; for this is, roughly speaking,
the end of the political life. But it seems too superficial to be
what we are looking for, since it is thought to depend on those who
bestow honour rather than on him who receives it, but the good we
divine to be something proper to a man and not easily taken from him.
Further, men seem to pursue honour in order that they may be assured
of their goodness; at least it is by men of practical wisdom that
they seek to be honoured, and among those who know them, and on the
ground of their virtue; clearly, then, according to them, at any rate,
virtue is better. And perhaps one might even suppose this to be, rather
than honour, the end of the political life. But even this appears
somewhat incomplete; for possession of virtue seems actually compatible
with being asleep, or with lifelong inactivity, and, further, with
the greatest sufferings and misfortunes; but a man who was living
so no one would call happy, unless he were maintaining a thesis at
all costs. But enough of this; for the subject has been sufficiently
treated even in the current discussions. Third comes the contemplative
life, which we shall consider later.

The life of money-making is one undertaken under compulsion, and wealth
is evidently not the good we are seeking; for it is merely useful
and for the sake of something else. And so one might rather take the
aforenamed objects to be ends; for they are loved for themselves.
But it is evident that not even these are ends; yet many arguments
have been thrown away in support of them. Let us leave this subject,
then.

6
We had perhaps better consider the universal good and discuss thoroughly
what is meant by it, although such an inquiry is made an uphill one
by the fact that the Forms have been introduced by friends of our
own. Yet it would perhaps be thought to be better, indeed to be our
duty, for the sake of maintaining the truth even to destroy what touches
us closely, especially as we are philosophers or lovers of wisdom;
for, while both are dear, piety requires us to honour truth above
our friends.

The men who introduced this doctrine did not posit Ideas of classes
within which they recognized priority and posteriority (which is the
reason why they did not maintain the existence of an Idea embracing
all numbers); but the term ‘good’ is used both in the category of
substance and in that of quality and in that of relation, and that
which is per se, i.e. substance, is prior in nature to the relative
(for the latter is like an off shoot and accident of being); so that
there could not be a common Idea set over all these goods. Further,
since ‘good’ has as many senses as ‘being’ (for it is predicated both
in the category of substance, as of God and of reason, and in quality,
i.e. of the virtues, and in quantity, i.e. of that which is moderate,
and in relation, i.e. of the useful, and in time, i.e. of the right
opportunity, and in place, i.e. of the right locality and the like),
clearly it cannot be something universally present in all cases and
single; for then it could not have been predicated in all the categories
but in one only. Further, since of the things answering to one Idea
there is one science, there would have been one science of all the
goods; but as it is there are many sciences even of the things that
fall under one category, e.g. of opportunity, for opportunity in war
is studied by strategics and in disease by medicine, and the moderate
in food is studied by medicine and in exercise by the science of gymnastics.
And one might ask the question, what in the world they mean by ‘a
thing itself’, is (as is the case) in ‘man himself’ and in a particular
man the account of man is one and the same. For in so far as they
are man, they will in no respect differ; and if this is so, neither
will ‘good itself’ and particular goods, in so far as they are good.
But again it will not be good any the more for being eternal, since
that which lasts long is no whiter than that which perishes in a day.
The Pythagoreans seem to give a more plausible account of the good,
when they place the one in the column of goods; and it is they that
Speusippus seems to have followed.

But let us discuss these matters elsewhere; an objection to what we
have said, however, may be discerned in the fact that the Platonists
have not been speaking about all goods, and that the goods that are
pursued and loved for themselves are called good by reference to a
single Form, while those which tend to produce or to preserve these
somehow or to prevent their contraries are called so by reference
to these, and in a secondary sense. Clearly, then, goods must be spoken
of in two ways, and some must be good in themselves, the others by
reason of these. Let us separate, then, things good in themselves
from things useful, and consider whether the former are called good
by reference to a single Idea. What sort of goods would one call good
in themselves? Is it those that are pursued even when isolated from
others, such as intelligence, sight, and certain pleasures and honours?
Certainly, if we pursue these also for the sake of something else,
yet one would place them among things good in themselves. Or is nothing
other than the Idea of good good in itself? In that case the Form
will be empty. But if the things we have named are also things good
in themselves, the account of the good will have to appear as something
identical in them all, as that of whiteness is identical in snow and
in white lead. But of honour, wisdom, and pleasure, just in respect
of their goodness, the accounts are distinct and diverse. The good,
therefore, is not some common element answering to one Idea.

But what then do we mean by the good? It is surely not like the things
that only chance to have the same name. Are goods one, then, by being
derived from one good or by all contributing to one good, or are they
rather one by analogy? Certainly as sight is in the body, so is reason
in the soul, and so on in other cases. But perhaps these subjects
had better be dismissed for the present; for perfect precision about
them would be more appropriate to another branch of philosophy. And
similarly with regard to the Idea; even if there is some one good
which is universally predicable of goods or is capable of separate
and independent existence, clearly it could not be achieved or attained
by man; but we are now seeking something attainable. Perhaps, however,
some one might think it worth while to recognize this with a view
to the goods that are attainable and achievable; for having this as
a sort of pattern we shall know better the goods that are good for
us, and if we know them shall attain them. This argument has some
plausibility, but seems to clash with the procedure of the sciences;
for all of these, though they aim at some good and seek to supply
the deficiency of it, leave on one side the knowledge of the good.
Yet that all the exponents of the arts should be ignorant of, and
should not even seek, so great an aid is not probable. It is hard,
too, to see how a weaver or a carpenter will be benefited in regard
to his own craft by knowing this ‘good itself’, or how the man who
has viewed the Idea itself will be a better doctor or general thereby.
For a doctor seems not even to study health in this way, but the health
of man, or perhaps rather the health of a particular man; it is individuals that he is healing. But enough of these topics.

7
Let us again return to the good we are seeking, and ask what it can
be. It seems different in different actions and arts; it is different
in medicine, in strategy, and in the other arts likewise. What then
is the good of each? Surely that for whose sake everything else is
done. In medicine this is health, in strategy victory, in architecture
a house, in any other sphere something else, and in every action and
pursuit the end; for it is for the sake of this that all men do whatever
else they do. Therefore, if there is an end for all that we do, this
will be the good achievable by action, and if there are more than
one, these will be the goods achievable by action.

So the argument has by a different course reached the same point;
but we must try to state this even more clearly. Since there are evidently
more than one end, and we choose some of these (e.g. wealth, flutes,
and in general instruments) for the sake of something else, clearly
not all ends are final ends; but the chief good is evidently something
final. Therefore, if there is only one final end, this will be what
we are seeking, and if there are more than one, the most final of
these will be what we are seeking. Now we call that which is in itself
worthy of pursuit more final than that which is worthy of pursuit
for the sake of something else, and that which is never desirable
for the sake of something else more final than the things that are
desirable both in themselves and for the sake of that other thing,
and therefore we call final without qualification that which is always
desirable in itself and never for the sake of something else.

Now such a thing happiness, above all else, is held to be; for this
we choose always for self and never for the sake of something else,
but honour, pleasure, reason, and every virtue we choose indeed for
themselves (for if nothing resulted from them we should still choose
each of them), but we choose them also for the sake of happiness,
judging that by means of them we shall be happy. Happiness, on the
other hand, no one chooses for the sake of these, nor, in general,
for anything other than itself.

From the point of view of self-sufficiency the same result seems to
follow; for the final good is thought to be self-sufficient. Now by
self-sufficient we do not mean that which is sufficient for a man
by himself, for one who lives a solitary life, but also for parents,
children, wife, and in general for his friends and fellow citizens,
since man is born for citizenship. But some limit must be set to this;
for if we extend our requirement to ancestors and descendants and
friends’ friends we are in for an infinite series. Let us examine
this question, however, on another occasion; the self-sufficient we
now define as that which when isolated makes life desirable and lacking
in nothing; and such we think happiness to be; and further we think
it most desirable of all things, without being counted as one good
thing among others- if it were so counted it would clearly be made
more desirable by the addition of even the least of goods; for that
which is added becomes an excess of goods, and of goods the greater
is always more desirable. Happiness, then, is something final and
self-sufficient, and is the end of action.

Presumably, however, to say that happiness is the chief good seems
a platitude, and a clearer account of what it is still desired. This
might perhaps be given, if we could first ascertain the function of
man. For just as for a flute-player, a sculptor, or an artist, and,
in general, for all things that have a function or activity, the good
and the ‘well’ is thought to reside in the function, so would it seem
to be for man, if he has a function. Have the carpenter, then, and
the tanner certain functions or activities, and has man none? Is he
born without a function? Or as eye, hand, foot, and in general each
of the parts evidently has a function, may one lay it down that man
similarly has a function apart from all these? What then can this
be? Life seems to be common even to plants, but we are seeking what
is peculiar to man. Let us exclude, therefore, the life of nutrition
and growth. Next there would be a life of perception, but it also
seems to be common even to the horse, the ox, and every animal. There
remains, then, an active life of the element that has a rational principle;
of this, one part has such a principle in the sense of being obedient
to one, the other in the sense of possessing one and exercising thought.
And, as ‘life of the rational element’ also has two meanings, we must
state that life in the sense of activity is what we mean; for this
seems to be the more proper sense of the term. Now if the function
of man is an activity of soul which follows or implies a rational
principle, and if we say ‘so-and-so-and ‘a good so-and-so’ have a
function which is the same in kind, e.g. a lyre, and a good lyre-player,
and so without qualification in all cases, eminence in respect of
goodness being idded to the name of the function (for the function
of a lyre-player is to play the lyre, and that of a good lyre-player
is to do so well): if this is the case, and we state the function
of man to be a certain kind of life, and this to be an activity or
actions of the soul implying a rational principle, and the function
of a good man to be the good and noble performance of these, and if
any action is well performed when it is performed in accordance with
the appropriate excellence: if this is the case, human good turns
out to be activity of soul in accordance with virtue, and if there
are more than one virtue, in accordance with the best and most complete.

But we must add ‘in a complete life.’ For one swallow does not make
a summer, nor does one day; and so too one day, or a short time, does
not make a man blessed and happy.

Let this serve as an outline of the good; for we must presumably first
sketch it roughly, and then later fill in the details. But it would
seem that any one is capable of carrying on and articulating what
has once been well outlined, and that time is a good discoverer or
partner in such a work; to which facts the advances of the arts are
due; for any one can add what is lacking. And we must also remember
what has been said before, and not look for precision in all things
alike, but in each class of things such precision as accords with
the subject-matter, and so much as is appropriate to the inquiry.
For a carpenter and a geometer investigate the right angle in different
ways; the former does so in so far as the right angle is useful for
his work, while the latter inquires what it is or what sort of thing
it is; for he is a spectator of the truth. We must act in the same
way, then, in all other matters as well, that our main task may not
be subordinated to minor questions. Nor must we demand the cause in
all matters alike; it is enough in some cases that the fact be well
established, as in the case of the first principles; the fact is the
primary thing or first principle. Now of first principles we see some
by induction, some by perception, some by a certain habituation, and
others too in other ways. But each set of principles we must try to
investigate in the natural way, and we must take pains to state them
definitely, since they have a great influence on what follows. For
the beginning is thought to be more than half of the whole, and many
of the questions we ask are cleared up by it.

8
We must consider it, however, in the light not only of our conclusion
and our premisses, but also of what is commonly said about it; for
with a true view all the data harmonize, but with a false one the
facts soon clash. Now goods have been divided into three classes,
and some are described as external, others as relating to soul or
to body; we call those that relate to soul most properly and truly
goods, and psychical actions and activities we class as relating to
soul. Therefore our account must be sound, at least according to this
view, which is an old one and agreed on by philosophers. It is correct
also in that we identify the end with certain actions and activities;
for thus it falls among goods of the soul and not among external goods.
Another belief which harmonizes with our account is that the happy
man lives well and does well; for we have practically defined happiness
as a sort of good life and good action. The characteristics that are
looked for in happiness seem also, all of them, to belong to what
we have defined happiness as being. For some identify happiness with
virtue, some with practical wisdom, others with a kind of philosophic
wisdom, others with these, or one of these, accompanied by pleasure
or not without pleasure; while others include also external prosperity.
Now some of these views have been held by many men and men of old,
others by a few eminent persons; and it is not probable that either
of these should be entirely mistaken, but rather that they should
be right in at least some one respect or even in most respects.

With those who identify happiness with virtue or some one virtue our
account is in harmony; for to virtue belongs virtuous activity. But
it makes, perhaps, no small difference whether we place the chief
good in possession or in use, in state of mind or in activity. For
the state of mind may exist without producing any good result, as
in a man who is asleep or in some other way quite inactive, but the
activity cannot; for one who has the activity will of necessity be
acting, and acting well. And as in the Olympic Games it is not the
most beautiful and the strongest that are crowned but those who compete
(for it is some of these that are victorious), so those who act win,
and rightly win, the noble and good things in life.

Their life is also in itself pleasant. For pleasure is a state of
soul, and to each man that which he is said to be a lover of is pleasant;
e.g. not only is a horse pleasant to the lover of horses, and a spectacle
to the lover of sights, but also in the same way just acts are pleasant
to the lover of justice and in general virtuous acts to the lover
of virtue. Now for most men their pleasures are in conflict with one
another because these are not by nature pleasant, but the lovers of
what is noble find pleasant the things that are by nature pleasant;
and virtuous actions are such, so that these are pleasant for such
men as well as in their own nature. Their life, therefore, has no
further need of pleasure as a sort of adventitious charm, but has
its pleasure in itself. For, besides what we have said, the man who
does not rejoice in noble actions is not even good; since no one would
call a man just who did not enjoy acting justly, nor any man liberal
who did not enjoy liberal actions; and similarly in all other cases.
If this is so, virtuous actions must be in themselves pleasant. But
they are also good and noble, and have each of these attributes in
the highest degree, since the good man judges well about these attributes;
his judgement is such as we have described. Happiness then is the
best, noblest, and most pleasant thing in the world, and these attributes
are not severed as in the inscription at Delos-

Most noble is that which is justest, and best is health;

But pleasantest is it to win what we love.

For all these properties belong to the best activities; and these,
or one- the best- of these, we identify with happiness.

Yet evidently, as we said, it needs the external goods as well; for
it is impossible, or not easy, to do noble acts without the proper
equipment. In many actions we use friends and riches and political
power as instruments; and there are some things the lack of which
takes the lustre from happiness, as good birth, goodly children, beauty;
for the man who is very ugly in appearance or ill-born or solitary
and childless is not very likely to be happy, and perhaps a man would
be still less likely if he had thoroughly bad children or friends
or had lost good children or friends by death. As we said, then, happiness
seems to need this sort of prosperity in addition; for which reason
some identify happiness with good fortune, though others identify
it with virtue.

9

For this reason also the question is asked, whether happiness is to
be acquired by learning or by habituation or some other sort of training,
or comes in virtue of some divine providence or again by chance. Now
if there is any gift of the gods to men, it is reasonable that happiness
should be god-given, and most surely god-given of all human things
inasmuch as it is the best. But this question would perhaps be more
appropriate to another inquiry; happiness seems, however, even if
it is not god-sent but comes as a result of virtue and some process
of learning or training, to be among the most godlike things; for
that which is the prize and end of virtue seems to be the best thing
in the world, and something godlike and blessed.

It will also on this view be very generally shared; for all who are
not maimed as regards their potentiality for virtue may win it by
a certain kind of study and care. But if it is better to be happy
thus than by chance, it is reasonable that the facts should be so,
since everything that depends on the action of nature is by nature
as good as it can be, and similarly everything that depends on art
or any rational cause, and especially if it depends on the best of
all causes. To entrust to chance what is greatest and most noble would
be a very defective arrangement.

The answer to the question we are asking is plain also from the definition
of happiness; for it has been said to be a virtuous activity of soul,
of a certain kind. Of the remaining goods, some must necessarily pre-exist
as conditions of happiness, and others are naturally co-operative
and useful as instruments. And this will be found to agree with what
we said at the outset; for we stated the end of political science
to be the best end, and political science spends most of its pains
on making the citizens to be of a certain character, viz. good and
capable of noble acts.

It is natural, then, that we call neither ox nor horse nor any other
of the animals happy; for none of them is capable of sharing in such
activity. For this reason also a boy is not happy; for he is not yet
capable of such acts, owing to his age; and boys who are called happy
are being congratulated by reason of the hopes we have for them. For
there is required, as we said, not only complete virtue but also a
complete life, since many changes occur in life, and all manner of
chances, and the most prosperous may fall into great misfortunes in
old age, as is told of Priam in the Trojan Cycle; and one who has
experienced such chances and has ended wretchedly no one calls happy.

10

Must no one at all, then, be called happy while he lives; must we,
as Solon says, see the end? Even if we are to lay down this doctrine,
is it also the case that a man is happy when he is dead? Or is not
this quite absurd, especially for us who say that happiness is an
activity? But if we do not call the dead man happy, and if Solon does
not mean this, but that one can then safely call a man blessed as
being at last beyond evils and misfortunes, this also affords matter
for discussion; for both evil and good are thought to exist for a
dead man, as much as for one who is alive but not aware of them; e.g.
honours and dishonours and the good or bad fortunes of children and
in general of descendants. And this also presents a problem; for though
a man has lived happily up to old age and has had a death worthy of
his life, many reverses may befall his descendants- some of them may
be good and attain the life they deserve, while with others the opposite
may be the case; and clearly too the degrees of relationship between
them and their ancestors may vary indefinitely. It would be odd, then,
if the dead man were to share in these changes and become at one time
happy, at another wretched; while it would also be odd if the fortunes
of the descendants did not for some time have some effect on the happiness
of their ancestors.

But we must return to our first difficulty; for perhaps by a consideration
of it our present problem might be solved. Now if we must see the
end and only then call a man happy, not as being happy but as having
been so before, surely this is a paradox, that when he is happy the
attribute that belongs to him is not to be truly predicated of him
because we do not wish to call living men happy, on account of the
changes that may befall them, and because we have assumed happiness
to be something permanent and by no means easily changed, while a
single man may suffer many turns of fortune’s wheel. For clearly if
we were to keep pace with his fortunes, we should often call the same
man happy and again wretched, making the happy man out to be chameleon
and insecurely based. Or is this keeping pace with his fortunes quite
wrong? Success or failure in life does not depend on these, but human
life, as we said, needs these as mere additions, while virtuous activities
or their opposites are what constitute happiness or the reverse.

The question we have now discussed confirms our definition. For no
function of man has so much permanence as virtuous activities (these
are thought to be more durable even than knowledge of the sciences),
and of these themselves the most valuable are more durable because
those who are happy spend their life most readily and most continuously
in these; for this seems to be the reason why we do not forget them.
The attribute in question, then, will belong to the happy man, and
he will be happy throughout his life; for always, or by preference
to everything else, he will be engaged in virtuous action and contemplation,
and he will bear the chances of life most nobly and altogether decorously,
if he is ‘truly good’ and ‘foursquare beyond reproach’.

Now many events happen by chance, and events differing in importance;
small pieces of good fortune or of its opposite clearly do not weigh
down the scales of life one way or the other, but a multitude of great
events if they turn out well will make life happier (for not only
are they themselves such as to add beauty to life, but the way a man
deals with them may be noble and good), while if they turn out ill
they crush and maim happiness; for they both bring pain with them
and hinder many activities. Yet even in these nobility shines through,
when a man bears with resignation many great misfortunes, not through
insensibility to pain but through nobility and greatness of soul.

If activities are, as we said, what gives life its character, no happy
man can become miserable; for he will never do the acts that are hateful
and mean. For the man who is truly good and wise, we think, bears
all the chances life becomingly and always makes the best of circumstances,
as a good general makes the best military use of the army at his command
and a good shoemaker makes the best shoes out of the hides that are
given him; and so with all other craftsmen. And if this is the case,
the happy man can never become miserable; though he will not reach
blessedness, if he meet with fortunes like those of Priam.

Nor, again, is he many-coloured and changeable; for neither will he
be moved from his happy state easily or by any ordinary misadventures,
but only by many great ones, nor, if he has had many great misadventures,
will he recover his happiness in a short time, but if at all, only
in a long and complete one in which he has attained many splendid
successes.

When then should we not say that he is happy who is active in accordance
with complete virtue and is sufficiently equipped with external goods,
not for some chance period but throughout a complete life? Or must
we add ‘and who is destined to live thus and die as befits his life’?
Certainly the future is obscure to us, while happiness, we claim,
is an end and something in every way final. If so, we shall call happy
those among living men in whom these conditions are, and are to be,
fulfilled- but happy men. So much for these questions.

11

That the fortunes of descendants and of all a man’s friends should
not affect his happiness at all seems a very unfriendly doctrine,
and one opposed to the opinions men hold; but since the events that
happen are numerous and admit of all sorts of difference, and some
come more near to us and others less so, it seems a long- nay, an
infinite- task to discuss each in detail; a general outline will perhaps
suffice. If, then, as some of a man’s own misadventures have a certain
weight and influence on life while others are, as it were, lighter,
so too there are differences among the misadventures of our friends
taken as a whole, and it makes a difference whether the various suffering
befall the living or the dead (much more even than whether lawless
and terrible deeds are presupposed in a tragedy or done on the stage),
this difference also must be taken into account; or rather, perhaps,
the fact that doubt is felt whether the dead share in any good or
evil. For it seems, from these considerations, that even if anything
whether good or evil penetrates to them, it must be something weak
and negligible, either in itself or for them, or if not, at least
it must be such in degree and kind as not to make happy those who
are not happy nor to take away their blessedness from those who are.
The good or bad fortunes of friends, then, seem to have some effects
on the dead, but effects of such a kind and degree as neither to make
the happy unhappy nor to produce any other change of the kind.

12

These questions having been definitely answered, let us consider whether
happiness is among the things that are praised or rather among the
things that are prized; for clearly it is not to be placed among potentialities.
Everything that is praised seems to be praised because it is of a
certain kind and is related somehow to something else; for we praise
the just or brave man and in general both the good man and virtue
itself because of the actions and functions involved, and we praise
the strong man, the good runner, and so on, because he is of a certain
kind and is related in a certain way to something good and important.
This is clear also from the praises of the gods; for it seems absurd
that the gods should be referred to our standard, but this is done
because praise involves a reference, to something else. But if if
praise is for things such as we have described, clearly what applies
to the best things is not praise, but something greater and better,
as is indeed obvious; for what we do to the gods and the most godlike
of men is to call them blessed and happy. And so too with good things;
no one praises happiness as he does justice, but rather calls it blessed,
as being something more divine and better.

Eudoxus also seems to have been right in his method of advocating
the supremacy of pleasure; he thought that the fact that, though a
good, it is not praised indicated it to be better than the things
that are praised, and that this is what God and the good are; for
by reference to these all other things are judged. Praise is appropriate
to virtue, for as a result of virtue men tend to do noble deeds, but
encomia are bestowed on acts, whether of the body or of the soul.
But perhaps nicety in these matters is more proper to those who have
made a study of encomia; to us it is clear from what has been said
that happiness is among the things that are prized and perfect. It
seems to be so also from the fact that it is a first principle; for
it is for the sake of this that we all do all that we do, and the
first principle and cause of goods is, we claim, something prized
and divine.

13 Since happiness is an activity of soul in accordance with perfect
virtue, we must consider the nature of virtue; for perhaps we shall
thus see better the nature of happiness. The true student of politics,
too, is thought to have studied virtue above all things; for he wishes
to make his fellow citizens good and obedient to the laws. As an example
of this we have the lawgivers of the Cretans and the Spartans, and
any others of the kind that there may have been. And if this inquiry
belongs to political science, clearly the pursuit of it will be in
accordance with our original plan. But clearly the virtue we must
study is human virtue; for the good we were seeking was human good
and the happiness human happiness. By human virtue we mean not that
of the body but that of the soul; and happiness also we call an activity
of soul. But if this is so, clearly the student of politics must know
somehow the facts about soul, as the man who is to heal the eyes or
the body as a whole must know about the eyes or the body; and all
the more since politics is more prized and better than medicine; but
even among doctors the best educated spend much labour on acquiring
knowledge of the body. The student of politics, then, must study the
soul, and must study it with these objects in view, and do so just
to the extent which is sufficient for the questions we are discussing;
for further precision is perhaps something more laborious than our
purposes require.

Some things are said about it, adequately enough, even in the discussions
outside our school, and we must use these; e.g. that one element in
the soul is irrational and one has a rational principle. Whether these
are separated as the parts of the body or of anything divisible are,
or are distinct by definition but by nature inseparable, like convex
and concave in the circumference of a circle, does not affect the
present question.

The nature of the soul

Of the irrational element one division seems to be widely distributed,
and vegetative in its nature, I mean that which causes nutrition and
growth; for it is this kind of power of the soul that one must assign
to all nurslings and to embryos, and this same power to fullgrown
creatures; this is more reasonable than to assign some different power
to them. Now the excellence of this seems to be common to all species
and not specifically human; for this part or faculty seems to function
most in sleep, while goodness and badness are least manifest in sleep
(whence comes the saying that the happy are not better off than the
wretched for half their lives; and this happens naturally enough,
since sleep is an inactivity of the soul in that respect in which
it is called good or bad), unless perhaps to a small extent some of
the movements actually penetrate to the soul, and in this respect
the dreams of good men are better than those of ordinary people. Enough
of this subject, however; let us leave the nutritive faculty alone,
since it has by its nature no share in human excellence.

There seems to be also another irrational element in the soul-one
which in a sense, however, shares in a rational principle. For we
praise the rational principle of the continent man and of the incontinent,
and the part of their soul that has such a principle, since it urges
them aright and towards the best objects; but there is found in them
also another element naturally opposed to the rational principle,
which fights against and resists that principle. For exactly as paralysed
limbs when we intend to move them to the right turn on the contrary
to the left, so is it with the soul; the impulses of incontinent people
move in contrary directions. But while in the body we see that which
moves astray, in the soul we do not. No doubt, however, we must none
the less suppose that in the soul too there is something contrary
to the rational principle, resisting and opposing it. In what sense
it is distinct from the other elements does not concern us. Now even
this seems to have a share in a rational principle, as we said; at
any rate in the continent man it obeys the rational principle and
presumably in the temperate and brave man it is still more obedient;
for in him it speaks, on all matters, with the same voice as the rational
principle.

Therefore the irrational element also appears to be two-fold. For
the vegetative element in no way shares in a rational principle, but
the appetitive and in general the desiring element in a sense shares
in it, in so far as it listens to and obeys it; this is the sense
in which we speak of ‘taking account’ of one’s father or one’s friends,
not that in which we speak of ‘accounting for a mathematical property.
That the irrational element is in some sense persuaded by a rational
principle is indicated also by the giving of advice and by all reproof
and exhortation. And if this element also must be said to have a rational
principle, that which has a rational principle (as well as that which
has not) will be twofold, one subdivision having it in the strict
sense and in itself, and the other having a tendency to obey as one
does one’s father.

Virtue too is distinguished into kinds in accordance with this difference;
for we say that some of the virtues are intellectual and others moral,
philosophic wisdom and understanding and practical wisdom being intellectual, liberality and temperance moral. For in speaking about a man’s character we do not say that he is wise or has understanding but that he is
good-tempered or temperate; yet we praise the wise man also with respect
to his state of mind; and of states of mind we call those which merit
praise virtues.

Book II Virtue as a mean

BOOK II

1

Virtue, then, being of two kinds, intellectual and moral, intellectual
virtue in the main owes both its birth and its growth to teaching
(for which reason it requires experience and time), while moral virtue
comes about as a result of habit, whence also its name (ethike) is
one that is formed by a slight variation from the word ethos (habit).
From this it is also plain that none of the moral virtues arises in
us by nature; for nothing that exists by nature can form a habit contrary
to its nature. For instance the stone which by nature moves downwards
cannot be habituated to move upwards, not even if one tries to train
it by throwing it up ten thousand times; nor can fire be habituated
to move downwards, nor can anything else that by nature behaves in
one way be trained to behave in another. Neither by nature, then,
nor contrary to nature do the virtues arise in us; rather we are adapted
by nature to receive them, and are made perfect by habit.

Again, of all the things that come to us by nature we first acquire
the potentiality and later exhibit the activity (this is plain in
the case of the senses; for it was not by often seeing or often hearing
that we got these senses, but on the contrary we had them before we
used them, and did not come to have them by using them); but the virtues
we get by first exercising them, as also happens in the case of the
arts as well. For the things we have to learn before we can do them,
we learn by doing them, e.g. men become builders by building and lyreplayers
by playing the lyre; so too we become just by doing just acts, temperate
by doing temperate acts, brave by doing brave acts.

This is confirmed by what happens in states; for legislators make
the citizens good by forming habits in them, and this is the wish
of every legislator, and those who do not effect it miss their mark,
and it is in this that a good constitution differs from a bad one.

Again, it is from the same causes and by the same means that every
virtue is both produced and destroyed, and similarly every art; for
it is from playing the lyre that both good and bad lyre-players are
produced. And the corresponding statement is true of builders and
of all the rest; men will be good or bad builders as a result of building
well or badly. For if this were not so, there would have been no need
of a teacher, but all men would have been born good or bad at their
craft. This, then, is the case with the virtues also; by doing the
acts that we do in our transactions with other men we become just
or unjust, and by doing the acts that we do in the presence of danger,
and being habituated to feel fear or confidence, we become brave or
cowardly. The same is true of appetites and feelings of anger; some
men become temperate and good-tempered, others self-indulgent and
irascible, by behaving in one way or the other in the appropriate
circumstances. Thus, in one word, states of character arise out of
like activities. This is why the activities we exhibit must be of
a certain kind; it is because the states of character correspond to
the differences between these. It makes no small difference, then,
whether we form habits of one kind or of another from our very youth;
it makes a very great difference, or rather all the difference.

2

Since, then, the present inquiry does not aim at theoretical knowledge
like the others (for we are inquiring not in order to know what virtue
is, but in order to become good, since otherwise our inquiry would
have been of no use), we must examine the nature of actions, namely
how we ought to do them; for these determine also the nature of the
states of character that are produced, as we have said. Now, that
we must act according to the right rule is a common principle and
must be assumed-it will be discussed later, i.e. both what the right
rule is, and how it is related to the other virtues. But this must
be agreed upon beforehand, that the whole account of matters of conduct
must be given in outline and not precisely, as we said at the very
beginning that the accounts we demand must be in accordance with the
subject-matter; matters concerned with conduct and questions of what
is good for us have no fixity, any more than matters of health. The
general account being of this nature, the account of particular cases
is yet more lacking in exactness; for they do not fall under any art
or precept but the agents themselves must in each case consider what
is appropriate to the occasion, as happens also in the art of medicine
or of navigation.

But though our present account is of this nature we must give what
help we can. First, then, let us consider this, that it is the nature
of such things to be destroyed by defect and excess, as we see in
the case of strength and of health (for to gain light on things imperceptible
we must use the evidence of sensible things); both excessive and defective
exercise destroys the strength, and similarly drink or food which
is above or below a certain amount destroys the health, while that
which is proportionate both produces and increases and preserves it.
So too is it, then, in the case of temperance and courage and the
other virtues. For the man who flies from and fears everything and
does not stand his ground against anything becomes a coward, and the
man who fears nothing at all but goes to meet every danger becomes
rash; and similarly the man who indulges in every pleasure and abstains
from none becomes self-indulgent, while the man who shuns every pleasure,
as boors do, becomes in a way insensible; temperance and courage,
then, are destroyed by excess and defect, and preserved by the mean.

But not only are the sources and causes of their origination and growth
the same as those of their destruction, but also the sphere of their
actualization will be the same; for this is also true of the things
which are more evident to sense, e.g. of strength; it is produced
by taking much food and undergoing much exertion, and it is the strong
man that will be most able to do these things. So too is it with the
virtues; by abstaining from pleasures we become temperate, and it
is when we have become so that we are most able to abstain from them;
and similarly too in the case of courage; for by being habituated
to despise things that are terrible and to stand our ground against
them we become brave, and it is when we have become so that we shall
be most able to stand our ground against them.

3

We must take as a sign of states of character the pleasure or pain
that ensues on acts; for the man who abstains from bodily pleasures
and delights in this very fact is temperate, while the man who is
annoyed at it is self-indulgent, and he who stands his ground against
things that are terrible and delights in this or at least is not pained
is brave, while the man who is pained is a coward. For moral excellence
is concerned with pleasures and pains; it is on account of the pleasure
that we do bad things, and on account of the pain that we abstain
from noble ones. Hence we ought to have been brought up in a particular
way from our very youth, as Plato says, so as both to delight in and
to be pained by the things that we ought; for this is the right education.

Again, if the virtues are concerned with actions and passions, and
every passion and every action is accompanied by pleasure and pain,
for this reason also virtue will be concerned with pleasures and pains.
This is indicated also by the fact that punishment is inflicted by
these means; for it is a kind of cure, and it is the nature of cures
to be effected by contraries.

Again, as we said but lately, every state of soul has a nature relative
to and concerned with the kind of things by which it tends to be made
worse or better; but it is by reason of pleasures and pains that men
become bad, by pursuing and avoiding these- either the pleasures and
pains they ought not or when they ought not or as they ought not,
or by going wrong in one of the other similar ways that may be distinguished.
Hence men even define the virtues as certain states of impassivity
and rest; not well, however, because they speak absolutely, and do
not say ‘as one ought’ and ‘as one ought not’ and ‘when one ought
or ought not’, and the other things that may be added. We assume,
then, that this kind of excellence tends to do what is best with regard
to pleasures and pains, and vice does the contrary.

The following facts also may show us that virtue and vice are concerned
with these same things. There being three objects of choice and three
of avoidance, the noble, the advantageous, the pleasant, and their
contraries, the base, the injurious, the painful, about all of these
the good man tends to go right and the bad man to go wrong, and especially
about pleasure; for this is common to the animals, and also it accompanies
all objects of choice; for even the noble and the advantageous appear
pleasant.

Again, it has grown up with us all from our infancy; this is why it
is difficult to rub off this passion, engrained as it is in our life.
And we measure even our actions, some of us more and others less,
by the rule of pleasure and pain. For this reason, then, our whole
inquiry must be about these; for to feel delight and pain rightly
or wrongly has no small effect on our actions.

Again, it is harder to fight with pleasure than with anger, to use
Heraclitus’ phrase’, but both art and virtue are always concerned
with what is harder; for even the good is better when it is harder.
Therefore for this reason also the whole concern both of virtue and
of political science is with pleasures and pains; for the man who
uses these well will be good, he who uses them badly bad.

That virtue, then, is concerned with pleasures and pains, and that
by the acts from which it arises it is both increased and, if they
are done differently, destroyed, and that the acts from which it arose
are those in which it actualizes itself- let this be taken as said.

4

The question might be asked,; what we mean by saying that we must
become just by doing just acts, and temperate by doing temperate acts;
for if men do just and temperate acts, they are already just and temperate,
exactly as, if they do what is in accordance with the laws of grammar
and of music, they are grammarians and musicians.

Or is this not true even of the arts? It is possible to do something
that is in accordance with the laws of grammar, either by chance or
at the suggestion of another. A man will be a grammarian, then, only
when he has both done something grammatical and done it grammatically;
and this means doing it in accordance with the grammatical knowledge
in himself.

Again, the case of the arts and that of the virtues are not similar;
for the products of the arts have their goodness in themselves, so
that it is enough that they should have a certain character, but if
the acts that are in accordance with the virtues have themselves a
certain character it does not follow that they are done justly or
temperately. The agent also must be in a certain condition when he
does them; in the first place he must have knowledge, secondly he
must choose the acts, and choose them for their own sakes, and thirdly
his action must proceed from a firm and unchangeable character. These
are not reckoned in as conditions of the possession of the arts, except
the bare knowledge; but as a condition of the possession of the virtues
knowledge has little or no weight, while the other conditions count
not for a little but for everything, i.e. the very conditions which
result from often doing just and temperate acts.

Actions, then, are called just and temperate when they are such as
the just or the temperate man would do; but it is not the man who
does these that is just and temperate, but the man who also does them
as just and temperate men do them. It is well said, then, that it
is by doing just acts that the just man is produced, and by doing
temperate acts the temperate man; without doing these no one would
have even a prospect of becoming good.

But most people do not do these, but take refuge in theory and think
they are being philosophers and will become good in this way, behaving
somewhat like patients who listen attentively to their doctors, but
do none of the things they are ordered to do. As the latter will not
be made well in body by such a course of treatment, the former will
not be made well in soul by such a course of philosophy.

5

Next we must consider what virtue is. Since things that are found
in the soul are of three kinds- passions, faculties, states of character,
virtue must be one of these. By passions I mean appetite, anger, fear,
confidence, envy, joy, friendly feeling, hatred, longing, emulation,
pity, and in general the feelings that are accompanied by pleasure
or pain; by faculties the things in virtue of which we are said to
be capable of feeling these, e.g. of becoming angry or being pained
or feeling pity; by states of character the things in virtue of which
we stand well or badly with reference to the passions, e.g. with reference
to anger we stand badly if we feel it violently or too weakly, and
well if we feel it moderately; and similarly with reference to the
other passions.

Now neither the virtues nor the vices are passions, because we are
not called good or bad on the ground of our passions, but are so called
on the ground of our virtues and our vices, and because we are neither
praised nor blamed for our passions (for the man who feels fear or
anger is not praised, nor is the man who simply feels anger blamed,
but the man who feels it in a certain way), but for our virtues and
our vices we are praised or blamed.

Again, we feel anger and fear without choice, but the virtues are
modes of choice or involve choice. Further, in respect of the passions
we are said to be moved, but in respect of the virtues and the vices
we are said not to be moved but to be disposed in a particular way.

For these reasons also they are not faculties; for we are neither
called good nor bad, nor praised nor blamed, for the simple capacity
of feeling the passions; again, we have the faculties by nature, but
we are not made good or bad by nature; we have spoken of this before.
If, then, the virtues are neither passions nor faculties, all that
remains is that they should be states of character.

Thus we have stated what virtue is in respect of its genus.

6

We must, however, not only describe virtue as a state of character,
but also say what sort of state it is. We may remark, then, that every
virtue or excellence both brings into good condition the thing of
which it is the excellence and makes the work of that thing be done
well; e.g. the excellence of the eye makes both the eye and its work
good; for it is by the excellence of the eye that we see well. Similarly
the excellence of the horse makes a horse both good in itself and
good at running and at carrying its rider and at awaiting the attack
of the enemy. Therefore, if this is true in every case, the virtue
of man also will be the state of character which makes a man good
and which makes him do his own work well.

How this is to happen we have stated already, but it will be made
plain also by the following consideration of the specific nature of
virtue. In everything that is continuous and divisible it is possible
to take more, less, or an equal amount, and that either in terms of
the thing itself or relatively to us; and the equal is an intermediate
between excess and defect. By the intermediate in the object I mean
that which is equidistant from each of the extremes, which is one
and the same for all men; by the intermediate relatively to us that
which is neither too much nor too little- and this is not one, nor
the same for all. For instance, if ten is many and two is few, six
is the intermediate, taken in terms of the object; for it exceeds
and is exceeded by an equal amount; this is intermediate according
to arithmetical proportion. But the intermediate relatively to us
is not to be taken so; if ten pounds are too much for a particular
person to eat and two too little, it does not follow that the trainer
will order six pounds; for this also is perhaps too much for the person
who is to take it, or too little- too little for Milo, too much for
the beginner in athletic exercises. The same is true of running and
wrestling. Thus a master of any art avoids excess and defect, but
seeks the intermediate and chooses this- the intermediate not in the
object but relatively to us.

If it is thus, then, that every art does its work well- by looking
to the intermediate and judgling its works by this standard (so that
we often say of good works of art that it is not possible either to
take away or to add anything, implying that excess and defect destroy
the goodness of works of art, while the mean preserves it; and good
artists, as we say, look to this in their work), and if, further,
virtue is more exact and better than any art, as nature also is, then
virtue must have the quality of aiming at the intermediate. I mean
moral virtue; for it is this that is concerned with passions and actions,
and in these there is excess, defect, and the intermediate. For instance,
both fear and confidence and appetite and anger and pity and in general
pleasure and pain may be felt both too much and too little, and in
both cases not well; but to feel them at the right times, with reference
to the right objects, towards the right people, with the right motive,
and in the right way, is what is both intermediate and best, and this
is characteristic of virtue. Similarly with regard to actions also
there is excess, defect, and the intermediate. Now virtue is concerned
with passions and actions, in which excess is a form of failure, and
so is defect, while the intermediate is praised and is a form of success;
and being praised and being successful are both characteristics of
virtue. Therefore virtue is a kind of mean, since, as we have seen,
it aims at what is intermediate.

Again, it is possible to fail in many ways (for evil belongs to the
class of the unlimited, as the Pythagoreans conjectured, and good
to that of the limited), while to succeed is possible only in one
way (for which reason also one is easy and the other difficult- to
miss the mark easy, to hit it difficult); for these reasons also,
then, excess and defect are characteristic of vice, and the mean of
virtue;

For men are good in but one way, but bad in many.

Virtue, then, is a state of character concerned with choice, lying
in a mean, i.e. the mean relative to us, this being determined by
a rational principle, and by that principle by which the man of practical
wisdom would determine it. Now it is a mean between two vices, that
which depends on excess and that which depends on defect; and again
it is a mean because the vices respectively fall short of or exceed
what is right in both passions and actions, while virtue both finds
and chooses that which is intermediate. Hence in respect of its substance
and the definition which states its essence virtue is a mean, with
regard to what is best and right an extreme.

But not every action nor every passion admits of a mean; for some
have names that already imply badness, e.g. spite, shamelessness,
envy, and in the case of actions adultery, theft, murder; for all
of these and suchlike things imply by their names that they are themselves
bad, and not the excesses or deficiencies of them. It is not possible,
then, ever to be right with regard to them; one must always be wrong.
Nor does goodness or badness with regard to such things depend on
committing adultery with the right woman, at the right time, and in
the right way, but simply to do any of them is to go wrong. It would
be equally absurd, then, to expect that in unjust, cowardly, and voluptuous
action there should be a mean, an excess, and a deficiency; for at
that rate there would be a mean of excess and of deficiency, an excess
of excess, and a deficiency of deficiency. But as there is no excess
and deficiency of temperance and courage because what is intermediate
is in a sense an extreme, so too of the actions we have mentioned
there is no mean nor any excess and deficiency, but however they are
done they are wrong; for in general there is neither a mean of excess
and deficiency, nor excess and deficiency of a mean.

7

We must, however, not only make this general statement, but also apply
it to the individual facts. For among statements about conduct those
which are general apply more widely, but those which are particular
are more genuine, since conduct has to do with individual cases, and
our statements must harmonize with the facts in these cases. We may
take these cases from our table. With regard to feelings of fear and
confidence courage is the mean; of the people who exceed, he who exceeds
in fearlessness has no name (many of the states have no name), while
the man who exceeds in confidence is rash, and he who exceeds in fear
and falls short in confidence is a coward. With regard to pleasures
and pains- not all of them, and not so much with regard to the pains-
the mean is temperance, the excess self-indulgence. Persons deficient
with regard to the pleasures are not often found; hence such persons
also have received no name. But let us call them ‘insensible’.

With regard to giving and taking of money the mean is liberality,
the excess and the defect prodigality and meanness. In these actions
people exceed and fall short in contrary ways; the prodigal exceeds
in spending and falls short in taking, while the mean man exceeds
in taking and falls short in spending. (At present we are giving a
mere outline or summary, and are satisfied with this; later these
states will be more exactly determined.) With regard to money there
are also other dispositions- a mean, magnificence (for the magnificent
man differs from the liberal man; the former deals with large sums,
the latter with small ones), an excess, tastelessness and vulgarity,
and a deficiency, niggardliness; these differ from the states opposed
to liberality, and the mode of their difference will be stated later.
With regard to honour and dishonour the mean is proper pride, the
excess is known as a sort of ’empty vanity’, and the deficiency is
undue humility; and as we said liberality was related to magnificence,
differing from it by dealing with small sums, so there is a state
similarly related to proper pride, being concerned with small honours
while that is concerned with great. For it is possible to desire honour
as one ought, and more than one ought, and less, and the man who exceeds
in his desires is called ambitious, the man who falls short unambitious,
while the intermediate person has no name. The dispositions also are
nameless, except that that of the ambitious man is called ambition.
Hence the people who are at the extremes lay claim to the middle place;
and we ourselves sometimes call the intermediate person ambitious
and sometimes unambitious, and sometimes praise the ambitious man
and sometimes the unambitious. The reason of our doing this will be
stated in what follows; but now let us speak of the remaining states
according to the method which has been indicated.

With regard to anger also there is an excess, a deficiency, and a
mean. Although they can scarcely be said to have names, yet since
we call the intermediate person good-tempered let us call the mean
good temper; of the persons at the extremes let the one who exceeds
be called irascible, and his vice irascibility, and the man who falls
short an inirascible sort of person, and the deficiency inirascibility.

There are also three other means, which have a certain likeness to
one another, but differ from one another: for they are all concerned
with intercourse in words and actions, but differ in that one is concerned
with truth in this sphere, the other two with pleasantness; and of
this one kind is exhibited in giving amusement, the other in all the
circumstances of life. We must therefore speak of these too, that
we may the better see that in all things the mean is praise-worthy,
and the extremes neither praiseworthy nor right, but worthy of blame.
Now most of these states also have no names, but we must try, as in
the other cases, to invent names ourselves so that we may be clear
and easy to follow. With regard to truth, then, the intermediate is
a truthful sort of person and the mean may be called truthfulness,
while the pretence which exaggerates is boastfulness and the person
characterized by it a boaster, and that which understates is mock
modesty and the person characterized by it mock-modest. With regard
to pleasantness in the giving of amusement the intermediate person
is ready-witted and the disposition ready wit, the excess is buffoonery
and the person characterized by it a buffoon, while the man who falls
short is a sort of boor and his state is boorishness. With regard
to the remaining kind of pleasantness, that which is exhibited in
life in general, the man who is pleasant in the right way is friendly
and the mean is friendliness, while the man who exceeds is an obsequious
person if he has no end in view, a flatterer if he is aiming at his
own advantage, and the man who falls short and is unpleasant in all
circumstances is a quarrelsome and surly sort of person.

There are also means in the passions and concerned with the passions;
since shame is not a virtue, and yet praise is extended to the modest
man. For even in these matters one man is said to be intermediate,
and another to exceed, as for instance the bashful man who is ashamed
of everything; while he who falls short or is not ashamed of anything
at all is shameless, and the intermediate person is modest. Righteous
indignation is a mean between envy and spite, and these states are
concerned with the pain and pleasure that are felt at the fortunes
of our neighbours; the man who is characterized by righteous indignation
is pained at undeserved good fortune, the envious man, going beyond
him, is pained at all good fortune, and the spiteful man falls so
far short of being pained that he even rejoices. But these states
there will be an opportunity of describing elsewhere; with regard
to justice, since it has not one simple meaning, we shall, after describing
the other states, distinguish its two kinds and say how each of them
is a mean; and similarly we shall treat also of the rational virtues.

8

There are three kinds of disposition, then, two of them vices, involving
excess and deficiency respectively, and one a virtue, viz. the mean,
and all are in a sense opposed to all; for the extreme states are
contrary both to the intermediate state and to each other, and the
intermediate to the extremes; as the equal is greater relatively to
the less, less relatively to the greater, so the middle states are
excessive relatively to the deficiencies, deficient relatively to
the excesses, both in passions and in actions. For the brave man appears
rash relatively to the coward, and cowardly relatively to the rash
man; and similarly the temperate man appears self-indulgent relatively
to the insensible man, insensible relatively to the self-indulgent,
and the liberal man prodigal relatively to the mean man, mean relatively
to the prodigal. Hence also the people at the extremes push the intermediate
man each over to the other, and the brave man is called rash by the
coward, cowardly by the rash man, and correspondingly in the other
cases.

These states being thus opposed to one another, the greatest contrariety
is that of the extremes to each other, rather than to the intermediate;
for these are further from each other than from the intermediate,
as the great is further from the small and the small from the great
than both are from the equal. Again, to the intermediate some extremes
show a certain likeness, as that of rashness to courage and that of
prodigality to liberality; but the extremes show the greatest unlikeness
to each other; now contraries are defined as the things that are furthest
from each other, so that things that are further apart are more contrary.

To the mean in some cases the deficiency, in some the excess is more
opposed; e.g. it is not rashness, which is an excess, but cowardice,
which is a deficiency, that is more opposed to courage, and not insensibility,
which is a deficiency, but self-indulgence, which is an excess, that
is more opposed to temperance. This happens from two reasons, one
being drawn from the thing itself; for because one extreme is nearer
and liker to the intermediate, we oppose not this but rather its contrary
to the intermediate. E.g. since rashness is thought liker and nearer
to courage, and cowardice more unlike, we oppose rather the latter
to courage; for things that are further from the intermediate are
thought more contrary to it. This, then, is one cause, drawn from
the thing itself; another is drawn from ourselves; for the things
to which we ourselves more naturally tend seem more contrary to the
intermediate. For instance, we ourselves tend more naturally to pleasures,
and hence are more easily carried away towards self-indulgence than
towards propriety. We describe as contrary to the mean, then, rather
the directions in which we more often go to great lengths; and therefore
self-indulgence, which is an excess, is the more contrary to temperance.

9

That moral virtue is a mean, then, and in what sense it is so, and
that it is a mean between two vices, the one involving excess, the
other deficiency, and that it is such because its character is to
aim at what is intermediate in passions and in actions, has been sufficiently
stated. Hence also it is no easy task to be good. For in everything
it is no easy task to find the middle, e.g. to find the middle of
a circle is not for every one but for him who knows; so, too, any
one can get angry- that is easy- or give or spend money; but to do
this to the right person, to the right extent, at the right time,
with the right motive, and in the right way, that is not for every
one, nor is it easy; wherefore goodness is both rare and laudable
and noble.

Hence he who aims at the intermediate must first depart from what
is the more contrary to it, as Calypso advises-

Hold the ship out beyond that surf and spray.

For of the extremes one is more erroneous, one less so; therefore,
since to hit the mean is hard in the extreme, we must as a second
best, as people say, take the least of the evils; and this will be
done best in the way we describe. But we must consider the things
towards which we ourselves also are easily carried away; for some
of us tend to one thing, some to another; and this will be recognizable
from the pleasure and the pain we feel. We must drag ourselves away
to the contrary extreme; for we shall get into the intermediate state
by drawing well away from error, as people do in straightening sticks
that are bent.

Now in everything the pleasant or pleasure is most to be guarded against;
for we do not judge it impartially. We ought, then, to feel towards
pleasure as the elders of the people felt towards Helen, and in all
circumstances repeat their saying; for if we dismiss pleasure thus
we are less likely to go astray. It is by doing this, then, (to sum
the matter up) that we shall best be able to hit the mean.

But this is no doubt difficult, and especially in individual cases;
for or is not easy to determine both how and with whom and on what
provocation and how long one should be angry; for we too sometimes
praise those who fall short and call them good-tempered, but sometimes
we praise those who get angry and call them manly. The man, however,
who deviates little from goodness is not blamed, whether he do so
in the direction of the more or of the less, but only the man who
deviates more widely; for he does not fail to be noticed. But up to
what point and to what extent a man must deviate before he becomes
blameworthy it is not easy to determine by reasoning, any more than
anything else that is perceived by the senses; such things depend
on particular facts, and the decision rests with perception. So much,
then, is plain, that the intermediate state is in all things to be
praised, but that we must incline sometimes towards the excess, sometimes
towards the deficiency; for so shall we most easily hit the mean and
what is right.

BOOK III

1

Since virtue is concerned with passions and actions, and on voluntary
passions and actions praise and blame are bestowed, on those that
are involuntary pardon, and sometimes also pity, to distinguish the
voluntary and the involuntary is presumably necessary for those who
are studying the nature of virtue, and useful also for legislators
with a view to the assigning both of honours and of punishments. Those
things, then, are thought-involuntary, which take place under compulsion
or owing to ignorance; and that is compulsory of which the moving
principle is outside, being a principle in which nothing is contributed
by the person who is acting or is feeling the passion, e.g. if he
were to be carried somewhere by a wind, or by men who had him in their
power.

But with regard to the things that are done from fear of greater evils
or for some noble object (e.g. if a tyrant were to order one to do
something base, having one’s parents and children in his power, and
if one did the action they were to be saved, but otherwise would be
put to death), it may be debated whether such actions are involuntary
or voluntary. Something of the sort happens also with regard to the
throwing of goods overboard in a storm; for in the abstract no one
throws goods away voluntarily, but on condition of its securing the
safety of himself and his crew any sensible man does so. Such actions,
then, are mixed, but are more like voluntary actions; for they are
worthy of choice at the time when they are done, and the end of an
action is relative to the occasion. Both the terms, then, ‘voluntary’
and ‘involuntary’, must be used with reference to the moment of action.
Now the man acts voluntarily; for the principle that moves the instrumental
parts of the body in such actions is in him, and the things of which
the moving principle is in a man himself are in his power to do or
not to do. Such actions, therefore, are voluntary, but in the abstract
perhaps involuntary; for no one would choose any such act in itself.

For such actions men are sometimes even praised, when they endure
something base or painful in return for great and noble objects gained;
in the opposite case they are blamed, since to endure the greatest
indignities for no noble end or for a trifling end is the mark of
an inferior person. On some actions praise indeed is not bestowed,
but pardon is, when one does what he ought not under pressure which
overstrains human nature and which no one could withstand. But some
acts, perhaps, we cannot be forced to do, but ought rather to face
death after the most fearful sufferings; for the things that ‘forced’
Euripides Alcmaeon to slay his mother seem absurd. It is difficult
sometimes to determine what should be chosen at what cost, and what
should be endured in return for what gain, and yet more difficult
to abide by our decisions; for as a rule what is expected is painful,
and what we are forced to do is base, whence praise and blame are
bestowed on those who have been compelled or have not.

What sort of acts, then, should be called compulsory? We answer that
without qualification actions are so when the cause is in the external
circumstances and the agent contributes nothing. But the things that
in themselves are involuntary, but now and in return for these gains
are worthy of choice, and whose moving principle is in the agent,
are in themselves involuntary, but now and in return for these gains
voluntary. They are more like voluntary acts; for actions are in the
class of particulars, and the particular acts here are voluntary.
What sort of things are to be chosen, and in return for what, it is
not easy to state; for there are many differences in the particular
cases.

But if some one were to say that pleasant and noble objects have a
compelling power, forcing us from without, all acts would be for him
compulsory; for it is for these objects that all men do everything
they do. And those who act under compulsion and unwillingly act with
pain, but those who do acts for their pleasantness and nobility do
them with pleasure; it is absurd to make external circumstances responsible,
and not oneself, as being easily caught by such attractions, and to
make oneself responsible for noble acts but the pleasant objects responsible
for base acts. The compulsory, then, seems to be that whose moving
principle is outside, the person compelled contributing nothing.

Everything that is done by reason of ignorance is not voluntary; it
is only what produces pain and repentance that is involuntary. For
the man who has done something owing to ignorance, and feels not the
least vexation at his action, has not acted voluntarily, since he
did not know what he was doing, nor yet involuntarily, since he is
not pained. Of people, then, who act by reason of ignorance he who
repents is thought an involuntary agent, and the man who does not
repent may, since he is different, be called a not voluntary agent;
for, since he differs from the other, it is better that he should
have a name of his own.

Acting by reason of ignorance seems also to be different from acting
in ignorance; for the man who is drunk or in a rage is thought to
act as a result not of ignorance but of one of the causes mentioned,
yet not knowingly but in ignorance.

Now every wicked man is ignorant of what he ought to do and what he
ought to abstain from, and it is by reason of error of this kind that
men become unjust and in general bad; but the term ‘involuntary’ tends
to be used not if a man is ignorant of what is to his advantage- for
it is not mistaken purpose that causes involuntary action (it leads
rather to wickedness), nor ignorance of the universal (for that men
are blamed), but ignorance of particulars, i.e. of the circumstances
of the action and the objects with which it is concerned. For it is
on these that both pity and pardon depend, since the person who is
ignorant of any of these acts involuntarily.

Perhaps it is just as well, therefore, to determine their nature and
number. A man may be ignorant, then, of who he is, what he is doing,
what or whom he is acting on, and sometimes also what (e.g. what instrument)
he is doing it with, and to what end (e.g. he may think his act will
conduce to some one’s safety), and how he is doing it (e.g. whether
gently or violently). Now of all of these no one could be ignorant
unless he were mad, and evidently also he could not be ignorant of
the agent; for how could he not know himself? But of what he is doing
a man might be ignorant, as for instance people say ‘it slipped out
of their mouths as they were speaking’, or ‘they did not know it was
a secret’, as Aeschylus said of the mysteries, or a man might say
he ‘let it go off when he merely wanted to show its working’, as the
man did with the catapult. Again, one might think one’s son was an
enemy, as Merope did, or that a pointed spear had a button on it,
or that a stone was pumicestone; or one might give a man a draught
to save him, and really kill him; or one might want to touch a man,
as people do in sparring, and really wound him. The ignorance may
relate, then, to any of these things, i.e. of the circumstances of
the action, and the man who was ignorant of any of these is thought
to have acted involuntarily, and especially if he was ignorant on
the most important points; and these are thought to be the circumstances
of the action and its end. Further, the doing of an act that is called
involuntary in virtue of ignorance of this sort must be painful and
involve repentance.

Since that which is done under compulsion or by reason of ignorance
is involuntary, the voluntary would seem to be that of which the moving
principle is in the agent himself, he being aware of the particular
circumstances of the action. Presumably acts done by reason of anger
or appetite are not rightly called involuntary. For in the first place,
on that showing none of the other animals will act voluntarily, nor
will children; and secondly, is it meant that we do not do voluntarily
any of the acts that are due to appetite or anger, or that we do the
noble acts voluntarily and the base acts involuntarily? Is not this
absurd, when one and the same thing is the cause? But it would surely
be odd to describe as involuntary the things one ought to desire;
and we ought both to be angry at certain things and to have an appetite
for certain things, e.g. for health and for learning. Also what is
involuntary is thought to be painful, but what is in accordance with
appetite is thought to be pleasant. Again, what is the difference
in respect of involuntariness between errors committed upon calculation
and those committed in anger? Both are to be avoided, but the irrational
passions are thought not less human than reason is, and therefore
also the actions which proceed from anger or appetite are the man’s
actions. It would be odd, then, to treat them as involuntary.

2

Both the voluntary and the involuntary having been delimited, we must
next discuss choice; for it is thought to be most closely bound up
with virtue and to discriminate characters better than actions do.

Choice, then, seems to be voluntary, but not the same thing as the
voluntary; the latter extends more widely. For both children and the
lower animals share in voluntary action, but not in choice, and acts
done on the spur of the moment we describe as voluntary, but not as
chosen.

Those who say it is appetite or anger or wish or a kind of opinion
do not seem to be right. For choice is not common to irrational creatures
as well, but appetite and anger are. Again, the incontinent man acts
with appetite, but not with choice; while the continent man on the
contrary acts with choice, but not with appetite. Again, appetite
is contrary to choice, but not appetite to appetite. Again, appetite
relates to the pleasant and the painful, choice neither to the painful
nor to the pleasant.

Still less is it anger; for acts due to anger are thought to be less
than any others objects of choice.

But neither is it wish, though it seems near to it; for choice cannot
relate to impossibles, and if any one said he chose them he would
be thought silly; but there may be a wish even for impossibles, e.g.
for immortality. And wish may relate to things that could in no way
be brought about by one’s own efforts, e.g. that a particular actor
or athlete should win in a competition; but no one chooses such things,
but only the things that he thinks could be brought about by his own
efforts. Again, wish relates rather to the end, choice to the means;
for instance, we wish to be healthy, but we choose the acts which
will make us healthy, and we wish to be happy and say we do, but we
cannot well say we choose to be so; for, in general, choice seems
to relate to the things that are in our own power.

For this reason, too, it cannot be opinion; for opinion is thought
to relate to all kinds of things, no less to eternal things and impossible
things than to things in our own power; and it is distinguished by
its falsity or truth, not by its badness or goodness, while choice
is distinguished rather by these.

Now with opinion in general perhaps no one even says it is identical.
But it is not identical even with any kind of opinion; for by choosing
what is good or bad we are men of a certain character, which we are
not by holding certain opinions. And we choose to get or avoid something
good or bad, but we have opinions about what a thing is or whom it
is good for or how it is good for him; we can hardly be said to opine
to get or avoid anything. And choice is praised for being related
to the right object rather than for being rightly related to it, opinion
for being truly related to its object. And we choose what we best
know to be good, but we opine what we do not quite know; and it is
not the same people that are thought to make the best choices and
to have the best opinions, but some are thought to have fairly good
opinions, but by reason of vice to choose what they should not. If
opinion precedes choice or accompanies it, that makes no difference;
for it is not this that we are considering, but whether it is identical
with some kind of opinion.

What, then, or what kind of thing is it, since it is none of the things
we have mentioned? It seems to be voluntary, but not all that is voluntary
to be an object of choice. Is it, then, what has been decided on by
previous deliberation? At any rate choice involves a rational principle
and thought. Even the name seems to suggest that it is what is chosen
before other things.

3

Do we deliberate about everything, and is everything a possible subject
of deliberation, or is deliberation impossible about some things?
We ought presumably to call not what a fool or a madman would deliberate
about, but what a sensible man would deliberate about, a subject of
deliberation. Now about eternal things no one deliberates, e.g. about
the material universe or the incommensurability of the diagonal and
the side of a square. But no more do we deliberate about the things
that involve movement but always happen in the same way, whether of
necessity or by nature or from any other cause, e.g. the solstices
and the risings of the stars; nor about things that happen now in
one way, now in another, e.g. droughts and rains; nor about chance
events, like the finding of treasure. But we do not deliberate even
about all human affairs; for instance, no Spartan deliberates about
the best constitution for the Scythians. For none of these things
can be brought about by our own efforts.

We deliberate about things that are in our power and can be done;
and these are in fact what is left. For nature, necessity, and chance
are thought to be causes, and also reason and everything that depends
on man. Now every class of men deliberates about the things that can
be done by their own efforts. And in the case of exact and self-contained
sciences there is no deliberation, e.g. about the letters of the alphabet
(for we have no doubt how they should be written); but the things
that are brought about by our own efforts, but not always in the same
way, are the things about which we deliberate, e.g. questions of medical
treatment or of money-making. And we do so more in the case of the
art of navigation than in that of gymnastics, inasmuch as it has been
less exactly worked out, and again about other things in the same
ratio, and more also in the case of the arts than in that of the sciences;
for we have more doubt about the former. Deliberation is concerned
with things that happen in a certain way for the most part, but in
which the event is obscure, and with things in which it is indeterminate.
We call in others to aid us in deliberation on important questions,
distrusting ourselves as not being equal to deciding.

We deliberate not about ends but about means. For a doctor does not
deliberate whether he shall heal, nor an orator whether he shall persuade,
nor a statesman whether he shall produce law and order, nor does any
one else deliberate about his end. They assume the end and consider
how and by what means it is to be attained; and if it seems to be
produced by several means they consider by which it is most easily
and best produced, while if it is achieved by one only they consider
how it will be achieved by this and by what means this will be achieved,
till they come to the first cause, which in the order of discovery
is last. For the person who deliberates seems to investigate and analyse
in the way described as though he were analysing a geometrical construction
(not all investigation appears to be deliberation- for instance mathematical
investigations- but all deliberation is investigation), and what is
last in the order of analysis seems to be first in the order of becoming.
And if we come on an impossibility, we give up the search, e.g. if
we need money and this cannot be got; but if a thing appears possible
we try to do it. By ‘possible’ things I mean things that might be
brought about by our own efforts; and these in a sense include things
that can be brought about by the efforts of our friends, since the
moving principle is in ourselves. The subject of investigation is
sometimes the instruments, sometimes the use of them; and similarly
in the other cases- sometimes the means, sometimes the mode of using
it or the means of bringing it about. It seems, then, as has been
said, that man is a moving principle of actions; now deliberation
is about the things to be done by the agent himself, and actions are
for the sake of things other than themselves. For the end cannot be
a subject of deliberation, but only the means; nor indeed can the
particular facts be a subject of it, as whether this is bread or has
been baked as it should; for these are matters of perception. If we
are to be always deliberating, we shall have to go on to infinity.

The same thing is deliberated upon and is chosen, except that the
object of choice is already determinate, since it is that which has
been decided upon as a result of deliberation that is the object of
choice. For every one ceases to inquire how he is to act when he has
brought the moving principle back to himself and to the ruling part
of himself; for this is what chooses. This is plain also from the
ancient constitutions, which Homer represented; for the kings announced
their choices to the people. The object of choice being one of the
things in our own power which is desired after deliberation, choice
will be deliberate desire of things in our own power; for when we
have decided as a result of deliberation, we desire in accordance
with our deliberation.

We may take it, then, that we have described choice in outline, and
stated the nature of its objects and the fact that it is concerned
with means.

4

That wish is for the end has already been stated; some think it is
for the good, others for the apparent good. Now those who say that
the good is the object of wish must admit in consequence that that
which the man who does not choose aright wishes for is not an object
of wish (for if it is to be so, it must also be good; but it was,
if it so happened, bad); while those who say the apparent good is
the object of wish must admit that there is no natural object of wish,
but only what seems good to each man. Now different things appear
good to different people, and, if it so happens, even contrary things.

If these consequences are unpleasing, are we to say that absolutely
and in truth the good is the object of wish, but for each person the
apparent good; that that which is in truth an object of wish is an
object of wish to the good man, while any chance thing may be so the
bad man, as in the case of bodies also the things that are in truth
wholesome are wholesome for bodies which are in good condition, while
for those that are diseased other things are wholesome- or bitter
or sweet or hot or heavy, and so on; since the good man judges each
class of things rightly, and in each the truth appears to him? For
each state of character has its own ideas of the noble and the pleasant,
and perhaps the good man differs from others most by seeing the truth
in each class of things, being as it were the norm and measure of
them. In most things the error seems to be due to pleasure; for it
appears a good when it is not. We therefore choose the pleasant as
a good, and avoid pain as an evil.

5

The end, then, being what we wish for, the means what we deliberate
about and choose, actions concerning means must be according to choice
and voluntary. Now the exercise of the virtues is concerned with means.
Therefore virtue also is in our own power, and so too vice. For where
it is in our power to act it is also in our power not to act, and
vice versa; so that, if to act, where this is noble, is in our power,
not to act, which will be base, will also be in our power, and if
not to act, where this is noble, is in our power, to act, which will
be base, will also be in our power. Now if it is in our power to do
noble or base acts, and likewise in our power not to do them, and
this was what being good or bad meant, then it is in our power to
be virtuous or vicious.

The saying that ‘no one is voluntarily wicked nor involuntarily happy’
seems to be partly false and partly true; for no one is involuntarily
happy, but wickedness is voluntary. Or else we shall have to dispute
what has just been said, at any rate, and deny that man is a moving
principle or begetter of his actions as of children. But if these
facts are evident and we cannot refer actions to moving principles
other than those in ourselves, the acts whose moving principles are
in us must themselves also be in our power and voluntary.

Witness seems to be borne to this both by individuals in their private
capacity and by legislators themselves; for these punish and take
vengeance on those who do wicked acts (unless they have acted under
compulsion or as a result of ignorance for which they are not themselves
responsible), while they honour those who do noble acts, as though
they meant to encourage the latter and deter the former. But no one
is encouraged to do the things that are neither in our power nor voluntary;
it is assumed that there is no gain in being persuaded not to be hot
or in pain or hungry or the like, since we shall experience these
feelings none the less. Indeed, we punish a man for his very ignorance,
if he is thought responsible for the ignorance, as when penalties
are doubled in the case of drunkenness; for the moving principle is
in the man himself, since he had the power of not getting drunk and
his getting drunk was the cause of his ignorance. And we punish those
who are ignorant of anything in the laws that they ought to know and
that is not difficult, and so too in the case of anything else that
they are thought to be ignorant of through carelessness; we assume
that it is in their power not to be ignorant, since they have the
power of taking care.

But perhaps a man is the kind of man not to take care. Still they
are themselves by their slack lives responsible for becoming men of
that kind, and men make themselves responsible for being unjust or
self-indulgent, in the one case by cheating and in the other by spending
their time in drinking bouts and the like; for it is activities exercised
on particular objects that make the corresponding character. This
is plain from the case of people training for any contest or action;
they practise the activity the whole time. Now not to know that it
is from the exercise of activities on particular objects that states
of character are produced is the mark of a thoroughly senseless person.
Again, it is irrational to suppose that a man who acts unjustly does
not wish to be unjust or a man who acts self-indulgently to be self-indulgent.
But if without being ignorant a man does the things which will make
him unjust, he will be unjust voluntarily. Yet it does not follow
that if he wishes he will cease to be unjust and will be just. For
neither does the man who is ill become well on those terms. We may
suppose a case in which he is ill voluntarily, through living incontinently
and disobeying his doctors. In that case it was then open to him not
to be ill, but not now, when he has thrown away his chance, just as
when you have let a stone go it is too late to recover it; but yet
it was in your power to throw it, since the moving principle was in
you. So, too, to the unjust and to the self-indulgent man it was open
at the beginning not to become men of this kind, and so they are unjust
and selfindulgent voluntarily; but now that they have become so it
is not possible for them not to be so.

But not only are the vices of the soul voluntary, but those of the
body also for some men, whom we accordingly blame; while no one blames
those who are ugly by nature, we blame those who are so owing to want
of exercise and care. So it is, too, with respect to weakness and
infirmity; no one would reproach a man blind from birth or by disease
or from a blow, but rather pity him, while every one would blame a
man who was blind from drunkenness or some other form of self-indulgence.
Of vices of the body, then, those in our own power are blamed, those
not in our power are not. And if this be so, in the other cases also
the vices that are blamed must be in our own power.

Now some one may say that all men desire the apparent good, but have
no control over the appearance, but the end appears to each man in
a form answering to his character. We reply that if each man is somehow
responsible for his state of mind, he will also be himself somehow
responsible for the appearance; but if not, no one is responsible
for his own evildoing, but every one does evil acts through ignorance
of the end, thinking that by these he will get what is best, and the
aiming at the end is not self-chosen but one must be born with an
eye, as it were, by which to judge rightly and choose what is truly
good, and he is well endowed by nature who is well endowed with this.
For it is what is greatest and most noble, and what we cannot get
or learn from another, but must have just such as it was when given
us at birth, and to be well and nobly endowed with this will be perfect
and true excellence of natural endowment. If this is true, then, how
will virtue be more voluntary than vice? To both men alike, the good
and the bad, the end appears and is fixed by nature or however it
may be, and it is by referring everything else to this that men do
whatever they do.

Whether, then, it is not by nature that the end appears to each man
such as it does appear, but something also depends on him, or the
end is natural but because the good man adopts the means voluntarily
virtue is voluntary, vice also will be none the less voluntary; for
in the case of the bad man there is equally present that which depends
on himself in his actions even if not in his end. If, then, as is
asserted, the virtues are voluntary (for we are ourselves somehow
partly responsible for our states of character, and it is by being
persons of a certain kind that we assume the end to be so and so),
the vices also will be voluntary; for the same is true of them.

With regard to the virtues in general we have stated their genus in
outline, viz. that they are means and that they are states of character,
and that they tend, and by their own nature, to the doing of the acts
by which they are produced, and that they are in our power and voluntary,
and act as the right rule prescribes. But actions and states of character
are not voluntary in the same way; for we are masters of our actions
from the beginning right to the end, if we know the particular facts,
but though we control the beginning of our states of character the
gradual progress is not obvious any more than it is in illnesses;
because it was in our power, however, to act in this way or not in
this way, therefore the states are voluntary.

Let us take up the several virtues, however, and say which they are
and what sort of things they are concerned with and how they are concerned
with them; at the same time it will become plain how many they are.
And first let us speak of courage.

6

That it is a mean with regard to feelings of fear and confidence has
already been made evident; and plainly the things we fear are terrible
things, and these are, to speak without qualification, evils; for
which reason people even define fear as expectation of evil. Now we
fear all evils, e.g. disgrace, poverty, disease, friendlessness, death,
but the brave man is not thought to be concerned with all; for to
fear some things is even right and noble, and it is base not to fear
them- e.g. disgrace; he who fears this is good and modest, and he
who does not is shameless. He is, however, by some people called brave,
by a transference of the word to a new meaning; for he has in him
something which is like the brave man, since the brave man also is
a fearless person. Poverty and disease we perhaps ought not to fear,
nor in general the things that do not proceed from vice and are not
due to a man himself. But not even the man who is fearless of these
is brave. Yet we apply the word to him also in virtue of a similarity;
for some who in the dangers of war are cowards are liberal and are
confident in face of the loss of money. Nor is a man a coward if he
fears insult to his wife and children or envy or anything of the kind;
nor brave if he is confident when he is about to be flogged. With
what sort of terrible things, then, is the brave man concerned? Surely
with the greatest; for no one is more likely than he to stand his
ground against what is awe-inspiring. Now death is the most terrible
of all things; for it is the end, and nothing is thought to be any
longer either good or bad for the dead. But the brave man would not
seem to be concerned even with death in all circumstances, e.g. at
sea or in disease. In what circumstances, then? Surely in the noblest.
Now such deaths are those in battle; for these take place in the greatest
and noblest danger. And these are correspondingly honoured in city-states
and at the courts of monarchs. Properly, then, he will be called brave
who is fearless in face of a noble death, and of all emergencies that
involve death; and the emergencies of war are in the highest degree
of this kind. Yet at sea also, and in disease, the brave man is fearless,
but not in the same way as the seaman; for he has given up hope of
safety, and is disliking the thought of death in this shape, while
they are hopeful because of their experience. At the same time, we
show courage in situations where there is the opportunity of showing
prowess or where death is noble; but in these forms of death neither
of these conditions is fulfilled.

7

What is terrible is not the same for all men; but we say there are
things terrible even beyond human strength. These, then, are terrible
to every one- at least to every sensible man; but the terrible things
that are not beyond human strength differ in magnitude and degree,
and so too do the things that inspire confidence. Now the brave man
is as dauntless as man may be. Therefore, while he will fear even
the things that are not beyond human strength, he will face them as
he ought and as the rule directs, for honour’s sake; for this is the
end of virtue. But it is possible to fear these more, or less, and
again to fear things that are not terrible as if they were. Of the
faults that are committed one consists in fearing what one should
not, another in fearing as we should not, another in fearing when
we should not, and so on; and so too with respect to the things that
inspire confidence. The man, then, who faces and who fears the right
things and from the right motive, in the right way and from the right
time, and who feels confidence under the corresponding conditions,
is brave; for the brave man feels and acts according to the merits
of the case and in whatever way the rule directs. Now the end of every
activity is conformity to the corresponding state of character. This
is true, therefore, of the brave man as well as of others. But courage
is noble. Therefore the end also is noble; for each thing is defined
by its end. Therefore it is for a noble end that the brave man endures
and acts as courage directs.

Of those who go to excess he who exceeds in fearlessness has no name
(we have said previously that many states of character have no names),
but he would be a sort of madman or insensible person if he feared
nothing, neither earthquakes nor the waves, as they say the Celts
do not; while the man who exceeds in confidence about what really
is terrible is rash. The rash man, however, is also thought to be
boastful and only a pretender to courage; at all events, as the brave
man is with regard to what is terrible, so the rash man wishes to
appear; and so he imitates him in situations where he can. Hence also
most of them are a mixture of rashness and cowardice; for, while in
these situations they display confidence, they do not hold their ground
against what is really terrible. The man who exceeds in fear is a
coward; for he fears both what he ought not and as he ought not, and
all the similar characterizations attach to him. He is lacking also
in confidence; but he is more conspicuous for his excess of fear in
painful situations. The coward, then, is a despairing sort of person;
for he fears everything. The brave man, on the other hand, has the
opposite disposition; for confidence is the mark of a hopeful disposition.
The coward, the rash man, and the brave man, then, are concerned with
the same objects but are differently disposed towards them; for the
first two exceed and fall short, while the third holds the middle,
which is the right, position; and rash men are precipitate, and wish
for dangers beforehand but draw back when they are in them, while
brave men are keen in the moment of action, but quiet beforehand.

As we have said, then, courage is a mean with respect to things that
inspire confidence or fear, in the circumstances that have been stated;
and it chooses or endures things because it is noble to do so, or
because it is base not to do so. But to die to escape from poverty
or love or anything painful is not the mark of a brave man, but rather
of a coward; for it is softness to fly from what is troublesome, and
such a man endures death not because it is noble but to fly from evil.

8

Courage, then, is something of this sort, but the name is also applied
to five other kinds.

First comes the courage of the citizen-soldier; for this is most like
true courage. Citizen-soldiers seem to face dangers because of the
penalties imposed by the laws and the reproaches they would otherwise
incur, and because of the honours they win by such action; and therefore
those peoples seem to be bravest among whom cowards are held in dishonour
and brave men in honour. This is the kind of courage that Homer depicts,
e.g. in Diomede and in Hector:

First will Polydamas be to heap reproach on me then; and

For Hector one day ‘mid the Trojans shall utter his vaulting

harangue:
Afraid was Tydeides, and fled from my face.

This kind of courage is most like to that which we described earlier,
because it is due to virtue; for it is due to shame and to desire
of a noble object (i.e. honour) and avoidance of disgrace, which is
ignoble. One might rank in the same class even those who are compelled
by their rulers; but they are inferior, inasmuch as they do what they
do not from shame but from fear, and to avoid not what is disgraceful
but what is painful; for their masters compel them, as Hector does:

But if I shall spy any dastard that cowers far from the fight,

Vainly will such an one hope to escape from the dogs.

And those who give them their posts, and beat them if they retreat,
do the same, and so do those who draw them up with trenches or something
of the sort behind them; all of these apply compulsion. But one ought
to be brave not under compulsion but because it is noble to be so.

(2) Experience with regard to particular facts is also thought to
be courage; this is indeed the reason why Socrates thought courage
was knowledge. Other people exhibit this quality in other dangers,
and professional soldiers exhibit it in the dangers of war; for there
seem to be many empty alarms in war, of which these have had the most
comprehensive experience; therefore they seem brave, because the others
do not know the nature of the facts. Again, their experience makes
them most capable in attack and in defence, since they can use their
arms and have the kind that are likely to be best both for attack
and for defence; therefore they fight like armed men against unarmed
or like trained athletes against amateurs; for in such contests too
it is not the bravest men that fight best, but those who are strongest
and have their bodies in the best condition. Professional soldiers
turn cowards, however, when the danger puts too great a strain on
them and they are inferior in numbers and equipment; for they are
the first to fly, while citizen-forces die at their posts, as in fact
happened at the temple of Hermes. For to the latter flight is disgraceful
and death is preferable to safety on those terms; while the former
from the very beginning faced the danger on the assumption that they
were stronger, and when they know the facts they fly, fearing death
more than disgrace; but the brave man is not that sort of person.

(3) Passion also is sometimes reckoned as courage; those who act from
passion, like wild beasts rushing at those who have wounded them,
are thought to be brave, because brave men also are passionate; for
passion above all things is eager to rush on danger, and hence Homer’s
‘put strength into his passion’ and ‘aroused their spirit and passion
and ‘hard he breathed panting’ and ‘his blood boiled’. For all such
expressions seem to indicate the stirring and onset of passion. Now
brave men act for honour’s sake, but passion aids them; while wild
beasts act under the influence of pain; for they attack because they
have been wounded or because they are afraid, since if they are in
a forest they do not come near one. Thus they are not brave because,
driven by pain and passion, they rush on danger without foreseeing
any of the perils, since at that rate even asses would be brave when
they are hungry; for blows will not drive them from their food; and
lust also makes adulterers do many daring things. (Those creatures
are not brave, then, which are driven on to danger by pain or passion.)
The ‘courage’ that is due to passion seems to be the most natural,
and to be courage if choice and motive be added.

Men, then, as well as beasts, suffer pain when they are angry, and
are pleased when they exact their revenge; those who fight for these
reasons, however, are pugnacious but not brave; for they do not act
for honour’s sake nor as the rule directs, but from strength of feeling;
they have, however, something akin to courage.

(4) Nor are sanguine people brave; for they are confident in danger
only because they have conquered often and against many foes. Yet
they closely resemble brave men, because both are confident; but brave
men are confident for the reasons stated earlier, while these are
so because they think they are the strongest and can suffer nothing.
(Drunken men also behave in this way; they become sanguine). When
their adventures do not succeed, however, they run away; but it was
the mark of a brave man to face things that are, and seem, terrible
for a man, because it is noble to do so and disgraceful not to do
so. Hence also it is thought the mark of a braver man to be fearless
and undisturbed in sudden alarms than to be so in those that are foreseen;
for it must have proceeded more from a state of character, because
less from preparation; acts that are foreseen may be chosen by calculation
and rule, but sudden actions must be in accordance with one’s state
of character.

(5) People who are ignorant of the danger also appear brave, and they
are not far removed from those of a sanguine temper, but are inferior
inasmuch as they have no self-reliance while these have. Hence also
the sanguine hold their ground for a time; but those who have been
deceived about the facts fly if they know or suspect that these are
different from what they supposed, as happened to the Argives when
they fell in with the Spartans and took them for Sicyonians.

We have, then, described the character both of brave men and of those
who are thought to be brave.

9

Though courage is concerned with feelings of confidence and of fear,
it is not concerned with both alike, but more with the things that
inspire fear; for he who is undisturbed in face of these and bears
himself as he should towards these is more truly brave than the man
who does so towards the things that inspire confidence. It is for
facing what is painful, then, as has been said, that men are called
brave. Hence also courage involves pain, and is justly praised; for
it is harder to face what is painful than to abstain from what is
pleasant.

Yet the end which courage sets before it would seem to be pleasant,
but to be concealed by the attending circumstances, as happens also
in athletic contests; for the end at which boxers aim is pleasant-
the crown and the honours- but the blows they take are distressing
to flesh and blood, and painful, and so is their whole exertion; and
because the blows and the exertions are many the end, which is but
small, appears to have nothing pleasant in it. And so, if the case
of courage is similar, death and wounds will be painful to the brave
man and against his will, but he will face them because it is noble
to do so or because it is base not to do so. And the more he is possessed
of virtue in its entirety and the happier he is, the more he will
be pained at the thought of death; for life is best worth living for
such a man, and he is knowingly losing the greatest goods, and this
is painful. But he is none the less brave, and perhaps all the more
so, because he chooses noble deeds of war at that cost. It is not
the case, then, with all the virtues that the exercise of them is
pleasant, except in so far as it reaches its end. But it is quite
possible that the best soldiers may be not men of this sort but those
who are less brave but have no other good; for these are ready to
face danger, and they sell their life for trifling gains.

So much, then, for courage; it is not difficult to grasp its nature
in outline, at any rate, from what has been said.

10

After courage let us speak of temperance; for these seem to be the
virtues of the irrational parts. We have said that temperance is a
mean with regard to pleasures (for it is less, and not in the same
way, concerned with pains); self-indulgence also is manifested in
the same sphere. Now, therefore, let us determine with what sort of
pleasures they are concerned. We may assume the distinction between
bodily pleasures and those of the soul, such as love of honour and
love of learning; for the lover of each of these delights in that
of which he is a lover, the body being in no way affected, but rather
the mind; but men who are concerned with such pleasures are called
neither temperate nor self-indulgent. Nor, again, are those who are
concerned with the other pleasures that are not bodily; for those
who are fond of hearing and telling stories and who spend their days
on anything that turns up are called gossips, but not self-indulgent,
nor are those who are pained at the loss of money or of friends.

Temperance must be concerned with bodily pleasures, but not all even
of these; for those who delight in objects of vision, such as colours
and shapes and painting, are called neither temperate nor self-indulgent;
yet it would seem possible to delight even in these either as one
should or to excess or to a deficient degree.

And so too is it with objects of hearing; no one calls those who delight
extravagantly in music or acting self-indulgent, nor those who do
so as they ought temperate.

Nor do we apply these names to those who delight in odour, unless
it be incidentally; we do not call those self-indulgent who delight
in the odour of apples or roses or incense, but rather those who delight
in the odour of unguents or of dainty dishes; for self-indulgent people
delight in these because these remind them of the objects of their
appetite. And one may see even other people, when they are hungry,
delighting in the smell of food; but to delight in this kind of thing
is the mark of the self-indulgent man; for these are objects of appetite
to him.

Nor is there in animals other than man any pleasure connected with
these senses, except incidentally. For dogs do not delight in the
scent of hares, but in the eating of them, but the scent told them
the hares were there; nor does the lion delight in the lowing of the
ox, but in eating it; but he perceived by the lowing that it was near,
and therefore appears to delight in the lowing; and similarly he does
not delight because he sees ‘a stag or a wild goat’, but because he
is going to make a meal of it. Temperance and self-indulgence, however,
are concerned with the kind of pleasures that the other animals share
in, which therefore appear slavish and brutish; these are touch and
taste. But even of taste they appear to make little or no use; for
the business of taste is the discriminating of flavours, which is
done by winetasters and people who season dishes; but they hardly
take pleasure in making these discriminations, or at least self-indulgent
people do not, but in the actual enjoyment, which in all cases comes
through touch, both in the case of food and in that of drink and in
that of sexual intercourse. This is why a certain gourmand prayed
that his throat might become longer than a crane’s, implying that
it was the contact that he took pleasure in. Thus the sense with which
self-indulgence is connected is the most widely shared of the senses;
and self-indulgence would seem to be justly a matter of reproach,
because it attaches to us not as men but as animals. To delight in
such things, then, and to love them above all others, is brutish.
For even of the pleasures of touch the most liberal have been eliminated,
e.g. those produced in the gymnasium by rubbing and by the consequent
heat; for the contact characteristic of the self-indulgent man does
not affect the whole body but only certain parts.

11

Of the appetites some seem to be common, others to be peculiar to
individuals and acquired; e.g. the appetite for food is natural, since
every one who is without it craves for food or drink, and sometimes
for both, and for love also (as Homer says) if he is young and lusty;
but not every one craves for this or that kind of nourishment or love,
nor for the same things. Hence such craving appears to be our very
own. Yet it has of course something natural about it; for different
things are pleasant to different kinds of people, and some things
are more pleasant to every one than chance objects. Now in the natural
appetites few go wrong, and only in one direction, that of excess;
for to eat or drink whatever offers itself till one is surfeited is
to exceed the natural amount, since natural appetite is the replenishment
of one’s deficiency. Hence these people are called belly-gods, this
implying that they fill their belly beyond what is right. It is people
of entirely slavish character that become like this. But with regard
to the pleasures peculiar to individuals many people go wrong and
in many ways. For while the people who are ‘fond of so and so’ are
so called because they delight either in the wrong things, or more
than most people do, or in the wrong way, the self-indulgent exceed
in all three ways; they both delight in some things that they ought
not to delight in (since they are hateful), and if one ought to delight
in some of the things they delight in, they do so more than one ought
and than most men do.

Plainly, then, excess with regard to pleasures is self-indulgence
and is culpable; with regard to pains one is not, as in the case of
courage, called temperate for facing them or self-indulgent for not
doing so, but the selfindulgent man is so called because he is pained
more than he ought at not getting pleasant things (even his pain being
caused by pleasure), and the temperate man is so called because he
is not pained at the absence of what is pleasant and at his abstinence
from it.

The self-indulgent man, then, craves for all pleasant things or those
that are most pleasant, and is led by his appetite to choose these
at the cost of everything else; hence he is pained both when he fails
to get them and when he is merely craving for them (for appetite involves
pain); but it seems absurd to be pained for the sake of pleasure.
People who fall short with regard to pleasures and delight in them
less than they should are hardly found; for such insensibility is
not human. Even the other animals distinguish different kinds of food
and enjoy some and not others; and if there is any one who finds nothing
pleasant and nothing more attractive than anything else, he must be
something quite different from a man; this sort of person has not
received a name because he hardly occurs. The temperate man occupies
a middle position with regard to these objects. For he neither enjoys
the things that the self-indulgent man enjoys most-but rather dislikes
them-nor in general the things that he should not, nor anything of
this sort to excess, nor does he feel pain or craving when they are
absent, or does so only to a moderate degree, and not more than he
should, nor when he should not, and so on; but the things that, being
pleasant, make for health or for good condition, he will desire moderately
and as he should, and also other pleasant things if they are not hindrances
to these ends, or contrary to what is noble, or beyond his means.
For he who neglects these conditions loves such pleasures more than
they are worth, but the temperate man is not that sort of person,
but the sort of person that the right rule prescribes.

12

Self-indulgence is more like a voluntary state than cowardice. For
the former is actuated by pleasure, the latter by pain, of which the
one is to be chosen and the other to be avoided; and pain upsets and
destroys the nature of the person who feels it, while pleasure does
nothing of the sort. Therefore self-indulgence is more voluntary.
Hence also it is more a matter of reproach; for it is easier to become
accustomed to its objects, since there are many things of this sort
in life, and the process of habituation to them is free from danger,
while with terrible objects the reverse is the case. But cowardice
would seem to be voluntary in a different degree from its particular
manifestations; for it is itself painless, but in these we are upset
by pain, so that we even throw down our arms and disgrace ourselves
in other ways; hence our acts are even thought to be done under compulsion.
For the self-indulgent man, on the other hand, the particular acts
are voluntary (for he does them with craving and desire), but the
whole state is less so; for no one craves to be self-indulgent.

The name self-indulgence is applied also to childish faults; for they
bear a certain resemblance to what we have been considering. Which
is called after which, makes no difference to our present purpose;
plainly, however, the later is called after the earlier. The transference
of the name seems not a bad one; for that which desires what is base
and which develops quickly ought to be kept in a chastened condition,
and these characteristics belong above all to appetite and to the
child, since children in fact live at the beck and call of appetite,
and it is in them that the desire for what is pleasant is strongest.
If, then, it is not going to be obedient and subject to the ruling
principle, it will go to great lengths; for in an irrational being
the desire for pleasure is insatiable even if it tries every source
of gratification, and the exercise of appetite increases its innate
force, and if appetites are strong and violent they even expel the
power of calculation. Hence they should be moderate and few, and should
in no way oppose the rational principle-and this is what we call an
obedient and chastened state-and as the child should live according
to the direction of his tutor, so the appetitive element should live
according to rational principle. Hence the appetitive element in a
temperate man should harmonize with the rational principle; for the
noble is the mark at which both aim, and the temperate man craves
for the things be ought, as he ought, as when he ought; and when he
ought; and this is what rational principle directs.

Here we conclude our account of temperance.

Book IV Virtues: generosity, magnificence, pride, honour, anger, friendship, honesty, good humour

BOOK IV

1

Let us speak next of liberality. It seems to be the mean with regard
to wealth; for the liberal man is praised not in respect of military
matters, nor of those in respect of which the temrate man is praised,
nor of judicial decisions, but with regard to the giving and taking
of wealth, and especially in respect of giving. Now by ‘wealth’ we
mean all the things whose value is measured by money. Further, prodigality and meanness are excesses and defects with regard to wealth; and meanness we always impute to those who care more than they ought for wealth,
but we sometimes apply the word ‘prodigality’ in a complex sense;
for we call those men prodigals who are incontinent and spend money
on self-indulgence. Hence also they are thought the poorest characters;
for they combine more vices than one. Therefore the application of
the word to them is not its proper use; for a ‘prodigal’ means a man
who has a single evil quality, that of wasting his substance; since
a prodigal is one who is being ruined by his own fault, and the wasting
of substance is thought to be a sort of ruining of oneself, life being
held to depend on possession of substance.

This, then, is the sense in which we take the word ‘prodigality’.
Now the things that have a use may be used either well or badly; and
riches is a useful thing; and everything is used best by the man who
has the virtue concerned with it; riches, therefore, will be used
best by the man who has the virtue concerned with wealth; and this
is the liberal man. Now spending and giving seem to be the using of
wealth; taking and keeping rather the possession of it. Hence it is
more the mark of the liberal man to give to the right people than
to take from the right sources and not to take from the wrong. For
it is more characteristic of virtue to do good than to have good done
to one, and more characteristic to do what is noble than not to do
what is base; and it is not hard to see that giving implies doing
good and doing what is noble, and taking implies having good done
to one or not acting basely. And gratitude is felt towards him who
gives, not towards him who does not take, and praise also is bestowed
more on him. It is easier, also, not to take than to give; for men
are apter to give away their own too little than to take what is another’s.
Givers, too, are called liberal; but those who do not take are not
praised for liberality but rather for justice; while those who take
are hardly praised at all. And the liberal are almost the most loved
of all virtuous characters, since they are useful; and this depends
on their giving.

Now virtuous actions are noble and done for the sake of the noble.
Therefore the liberal man, like other virtuous men, will give for
the sake of the noble, and rightly; for he will give to the right
people, the right amounts, and at the right time, with all the other
qualifications that accompany right giving; and that too with pleasure
or without pain; for that which is virtuous is pleasant or free from
pain-least of all will it be painful. But he who gives to the wrong
people or not for the sake of the noble but for some other cause,
will be called not liberal but by some other name. Nor is he liberal
who gives with pain; for he would prefer the wealth to the noble act,
and this is not characteristic of a liberal man. But no more will
the liberal man take from wrong sources; for such taking is not characteristic
of the man who sets no store by wealth. Nor will he be a ready asker;
for it is not characteristic of a man who confers benefits to accept
them lightly. But he will take from the right sources, e.g. from his
own possessions, not as something noble but as a necessity, that he
may have something to give. Nor will he neglect his own property,
since he wishes by means of this to help others. And he will refrain
from giving to anybody and everybody, that he may have something to
give to the right people, at the right time, and where it is noble
to do so. It is highly characteristic of a liberal man also to go
to excess in giving, so that he leaves too little for himself; for
it is the nature of a liberal man not to look to himself. The term
‘liberality’ is used relatively to a man’s substance; for liberality
resides not in the multitude of the gifts but in the state of character
of the giver, and this is relative to the giver’s substance. There
is therefore nothing to prevent the man who gives less from being
the more liberal man, if he has less to give those are thought to
be more liberal who have not made their wealth but inherited it; for
in the first place they have no experience of want, and secondly all
men are fonder of their own productions, as are parents and poets.
It is not easy for the liberal man to be rich, since he is not apt
either at taking or at keeping, but at giving away, and does not value
wealth for its own sake but as a means to giving. Hence comes the
charge that is brought against fortune, that those who deserve riches
most get it least. But it is not unreasonable that it should turn
out so; for he cannot have wealth, any more than anything else, if
he does not take pains to have it. Yet he will not give to the wrong
people nor at the wrong time, and so on; for he would no longer be
acting in accordance with liberality, and if he spent on these objects
he would have nothing to spend on the right objects. For, as has been
said, he is liberal who spends according to his substance and on the
right objects; and he who exceeds is prodigal. Hence we do not call
despots prodigal; for it is thought not easy for them to give and
spend beyond the amount of their possessions. Liberality, then, being
a mean with regard to giving and taking of wealth, the liberal man
will both give and spend the right amounts and on the right objects,
alike in small things and in great, and that with pleasure; he will
also take the right amounts and from the right sources. For, the virtue
being a mean with regard to both, he will do both as he ought; since
this sort of taking accompanies proper giving, and that which is not
of this sort is contrary to it, and accordingly the giving and taking
that accompany each other are present together in the same man, while
the contrary kinds evidently are not. But if he happens to spend in
a manner contrary to what is right and noble, he will be pained, but
moderately and as he ought; for it is the mark of virtue both to be
pleased and to be pained at the right objects and in the right way.
Further, the liberal man is easy to deal with in money matters; for
he can be got the better of, since he sets no store by money, and
is more annoyed if he has not spent something that he ought than pained
if he has spent something that he ought not, and does not agree with
the saying of Simonides.

The prodigal errs in these respects also; for he is neither pleased
nor pained at the right things or in the right way; this will be more
evident as we go on. We have said that prodigality and meanness are
excesses and deficiencies, and in two things, in giving and in taking;
for we include spending under giving. Now prodigality exceeds in giving
and not taking, while meanness falls short in giving, and exceeds
in taking, except in small things.

The characteristics of prodigality are not often combined; for it
is not easy to give to all if you take from none; private persons
soon exhaust their substance with giving, and it is to these that
the name of prodigals is applied- though a man of this sort would
seem to be in no small degree better than a mean man. For he is easily
cured both by age and by poverty, and thus he may move towards the
middle state. For he has the characteristics of the liberal man, since
he both gives and refrains from taking, though he does neither of
these in the right manner or well. Therefore if he were brought to
do so by habituation or in some other way, he would be liberal; for
he will then give to the right people, and will not take from the
wrong sources. This is why he is thought to have not a bad character;
it is not the mark of a wicked or ignoble man to go to excess in giving
and not taking, but only of a foolish one. The man who is prodigal
in this way is thought much better than the mean man both for the
aforesaid reasons and because he benefits many while the other benefits
no one, not even himself.

But most prodigal people, as has been said, also take from the wrong
sources, and are in this respect mean. They become apt to take because
they wish to spend and cannot do this easily; for their possessions
soon run short. Thus they are forced to provide means from some other
source. At the same time, because they care nothing for honour, they
take recklessly and from any source; for they have an appetite for
giving, and they do not mind how or from what source. Hence also their
giving is not liberal; for it is not noble, nor does it aim at nobility,
nor is it done in the right way; sometimes they make rich those who
should be poor, and will give nothing to people of respectable character,
and much to flatterers or those who provide them with some other pleasure.
Hence also most of them are self-indulgent; for they spend lightly
and waste money on their indulgences, and incline towards pleasures
because they do not live with a view to what is noble.

The prodigal man, then, turns into what we have described if he is
left untutored, but if he is treated with care he will arrive at the
intermediate and right state. But meanness is both incurable (for
old age and every disability is thought to make men mean) and more
innate in men than prodigality; for most men are fonder of getting
money than of giving. It also extends widely, and is multiform, since
there seem to be many kinds of meanness.

For it consists in two things, deficiency in giving and excess in
taking, and is not found complete in all men but is sometimes divided;
some men go to excess in taking, others fall short in giving. Those
who are called by such names as ‘miserly’, ‘close’, ‘stingy’, all
fall short in giving, but do not covet the possessions of others nor
wish to get them. In some this is due to a sort of honesty and avoidance
of what is disgraceful (for some seem, or at least profess, to hoard
their money for this reason, that they may not some day be forced
to do something disgraceful; to this class belong the cheeseparer
and every one of the sort; he is so called from his excess of unwillingness
to give anything); while others again keep their hands off the property
of others from fear, on the ground that it is not easy, if one takes
the property of others oneself, to avoid having one’s own taken by
them; they are therefore content neither to take nor to give.

Others again exceed in respect of taking by taking anything and from
any source, e.g. those who ply sordid trades, pimps and all such people,
and those who lend small sums and at high rates. For all of these
take more than they ought and from wrong sources. What is common to
them is evidently sordid love of gain; they all put up with a bad
name for the sake of gain, and little gain at that. For those who
make great gains but from wrong sources, and not the right gains,
e.g. despots when they sack cities and spoil temples, we do not call
mean but rather wicked, impious, and unjust. But the gamester and
the footpad (and the highwayman) belong to the class of the mean,
since they have a sordid love of gain. For it is for gain that both
of them ply their craft and endure the disgrace of it, and the one
faces the greatest dangers for the sake of the booty, while the other
makes gain from his friends, to whom he ought to be giving. Both,
then, since they are willing to make gain from wrong sources, are
sordid lovers of gain; therefore all such forms of taking are mean.

And it is natural that meanness is described as the contrary of liberality;
for not only is it a greater evil than prodigality, but men err more
often in this direction than in the way of prodigality as we have
described it.

So much, then, for liberality and the opposed vices.

2

It would seem proper to discuss magnificence next. For this also seems
to be a virtue concerned with wealth; but it does not like liberality
extend to all the actions that are concerned with wealth, but only
to those that involve expenditure; and in these it surpasses liberality
in scale. For, as the name itself suggests, it is a fitting expenditure
involving largeness of scale. But the scale is relative; for the expense
of equipping a trireme is not the same as that of heading a sacred
embassy. It is what is fitting, then, in relation to the agent, and
to the circumstances and the object. The man who in small or middling
things spends according to the merits of the case is not called magnificent
(e.g. the man who can say ‘many a gift I gave the wanderer’), but
only the man who does so in great things. For the magnificent man
is liberal, but the liberal man is not necessarily magnificent. The
deficiency of this state of character is called niggardliness, the
excess vulgarity, lack of taste, and the like, which do not go to
excess in the amount spent on right objects, but by showy expenditure
in the wrong circumstances and the wrong manner; we shall speak of
these vices later.

The magnificent man is like an artist; for he can see what is fitting
and spend large sums tastefully. For, as we said at the begining,
a state of character is determined by its activities and by its objects.
Now the expenses of the magnificent man are large and fitting. Such,
therefore, are also his results; for thus there will be a great expenditure
and one that is fitting to its result. Therefore the result should
be worthy of the expense, and the expense should be worthy of the
result, or should even exceed it. And the magnificent man will spend
such sums for honour’s sake; for this is common to the virtues. And
further he will do so gladly and lavishly; for nice calculation is
a niggardly thing. And he will consider how the result can be made
most beautiful and most becoming rather than for how much it can be
produced and how it can be produced most cheaply. It is necessary,
then, that the magnificent man be also liberal. For the liberal man
also will spend what he ought and as he ought; and it is in these
matters that the greatness implied in the name of the magnificent
man-his bigness, as it were-is manifested, since liberality is concerned
with these matters; and at an equal expense he will produce a more
magnificent work of art. For a possession and a work of art have not
the same excellence. The most valuable possession is that which is
worth most, e.g. gold, but the most valuable work of art is that which
is great and beautiful (for the contemplation of such a work inspires
admiration, and so does magnificence); and a work has an excellence-viz.
magnificence-which involves magnitude. Magnificence is an attribute
of expenditures of the kind which we call honourable, e.g. those connected
with the gods-votive offerings, buildings, and sacrifices-and similarly
with any form of religious worship, and all those that are proper
objects of public-spirited ambition, as when people think they ought
to equip a chorus or a trireme, or entertain the city, in a brilliant
way. But in all cases, as has been said, we have regard to the agent
as well and ask who he is and what means he has; for the expenditure
should be worthy of his means, and suit not only the result but also
the producer. Hence a poor man cannot be magnificent, since he has
not the means with which to spend large sums fittingly; and he who
tries is a fool, since he spends beyond what can be expected of him
and what is proper, but it is right expenditure that is virtuous.
But great expenditure is becoming to those who have suitable means
to start with, acquired by their own efforts or from ancestors or
connexions, and to people of high birth or reputation, and so on;
for all these things bring with them greatness and prestige. Primarily,
then, the magnificent man is of this sort, and magnificence is shown
in expenditures of this sort, as has been said; for these are the
greatest and most honourable. Of private occasions of expenditure
the most suitable are those that take place once for all, e.g. a wedding
or anything of the kind, or anything that interests the whole city
or the people of position in it, and also the receiving of foreign
guests and the sending of them on their way, and gifts and counter-gifts;
for the magnificent man spends not on himself but on public objects,
and gifts bear some resemblance to votive offerings. A magnificent
man will also furnish his house suitably to his wealth (for even a
house is a sort of public ornament), and will spend by preference
on those works that are lasting (for these are the most beautiful),
and on every class of things he will spend what is becoming; for the
same things are not suitable for gods and for men, nor in a temple
and in a tomb. And since each expenditure may be great of its kind,
and what is most magnificent absolutely is great expenditure on a
great object, but what is magnificent here is what is great in these
circumstances, and greatness in the work differs from greatness in
the expense (for the most beautiful ball or bottle is magnificent
as a gift to a child, but the price of it is small and mean),-therefore
it is characteristic of the magnificent man, whatever kind of result
he is producing, to produce it magnificently (for such a result is
not easily surpassed) and to make it worthy of the expenditure.

Such, then, is the magnificent man; the man who goes to excess and
is vulgar exceeds, as has been said, by spending beyond what is right.
For on small objects of expenditure he spends much and displays a
tasteless showiness; e.g. he gives a club dinner on the scale of a
wedding banquet, and when he provides the chorus for a comedy he brings
them on to the stage in purple, as they do at Megara. And all such
things he will do not for honour’s sake but to show off his wealth,
and because he thinks he is admired for these things, and where he
ought to spend much he spends little and where little, much. The niggardly
man on the other hand will fall short in everything, and after spending
the greatest sums will spoil the beauty of the result for a trifle,
and whatever he is doing he will hesitate and consider how he may
spend least, and lament even that, and think he is doing everything
on a bigger scale than he ought.

These states of character, then, are vices; yet they do not bring
disgrace because they are neither harmful to one’s neighbour nor very
unseemly.

3

Pride seems even from its name to be concerned with great things;
what sort of great things, is the first question we must try to answer.
It makes no difference whether we consider the state of character
or the man characterized by it. Now the man is thought to be proud
who thinks himself worthy of great things, being worthy of them; for
he who does so beyond his deserts is a fool, but no virtuous man is
foolish or silly. The proud man, then, is the man we have described.
For he who is worthy of little and thinks himself worthy of little
is temperate, but not proud; for pride implies greatness, as beauty
implies a goodsized body, and little people may be neat and well-proportioned
but cannot be beautiful. On the other hand, he who thinks himself
worthy of great things, being unworthy of them, is vain; though not
every one who thinks himself worthy of more than he really is worthy
of in vain. The man who thinks himself worthy of worthy of less than
he is really worthy of is unduly humble, whether his deserts be great
or moderate, or his deserts be small but his claims yet smaller. And
the man whose deserts are great would seem most unduly humble; for
what would he have done if they had been less? The proud man, then,
is an extreme in respect of the greatness of his claims, but a mean
in respect of the rightness of them; for he claims what is accordance
with his merits, while the others go to excess or fall short.

If, then, he deserves and claims great things, and above all the great
things, he will be concerned with one thing in particular. Desert
is relative to external goods; and the greatest of these, we should
say, is that which we render to the gods, and which people of position
most aim at, and which is the prize appointed for the noblest deeds;
and this is honour; that is surely the greatest of external goods.
Honours and dishonours, therefore, are the objects with respect to
which the proud man is as he should be. And even apart from argument
it is with honour that proud men appear to be concerned; for it is
honour that they chiefly claim, but in accordance with their deserts.
The unduly humble man falls short both in comparison with his own
merits and in comparison with the proud man’s claims. The vain man
goes to excess in comparison with his own merits, but does not exceed
the proud man’s claims.

Now the proud man, since he deserves most, must be good in the highest
degree; for the better man always deserves more, and the best man
most. Therefore the truly proud man must be good. And greatness in
every virtue would seem to be characteristic of a proud man. And it
would be most unbecoming for a proud man to fly from danger, swinging
his arms by his sides, or to wrong another; for to what end should
he do disgraceful acts, he to whom nothing is great? If we consider
him point by point we shall see the utter absurdity of a proud man
who is not good. Nor, again, would he be worthy of honour if he were
bad; for honour is the prize of virtue, and it is to the good that
it is rendered. Pride, then, seems to be a sort of crown of the virtues;
for it makes them greater, and it is not found without them. Therefore
it is hard to be truly proud; for it is impossible without nobility
and goodness of character. It is chiefly with honours and dishonours,
then, that the proud man is concerned; and at honours that are great
and conferred by good men he will be moderately Pleased, thinking
that he is coming by his own or even less than his own; for there
can be no honour that is worthy of perfect virtue, yet he will at
any rate accept it since they have nothing greater to bestow on him;
but honour from casual people and on trifling grounds he will utterly
despise, since it is not this that he deserves, and dishonour too,
since in his case it cannot be just. In the first place, then, as
has been said, the proud man is concerned with honours; yet he will
also bear himself with moderation towards wealth and power and all
good or evil fortune, whatever may befall him, and will be neither
over-joyed by good fortune nor over-pained by evil. For not even towards
honour does he bear himself as if it were a very great thing. Power
and wealth are desirable for the sake of honour (at least those who
have them wish to get honour by means of them); and for him to whom
even honour is a little thing the others must be so too. Hence proud
men are thought to be disdainful.

The goods of fortune also are thought to contribute towards pride.
For men who are well-born are thought worthy of honour, and so are
those who enjoy power or wealth; for they are in a superior position,
and everything that has a superiority in something good is held in
greater honour. Hence even such things make men prouder; for they
are honoured by some for having them; but in truth the good man alone
is to be honoured; he, however, who has both advantages is thought
the more worthy of honour. But those who without virtue have such
goods are neither justified in making great claims nor entitled to
the name of ‘proud’; for these things imply perfect virtue. Disdainful
and insolent, however, even those who have such goods become. For
without virtue it is not easy to bear gracefully the goods of fortune;
and, being unable to bear them, and thinking themselves superior to
others, they despise others and themselves do what they please. They
imitate the proud man without being like him, and this they do where
they can; so they do not act virtuously, but they do despise others.
For the proud man despises justly (since he thinks truly), but the
many do so at random.

He does not run into trifling dangers, nor is he fond of danger, because
he honours few things; but he will face great dangers, and when he
is in danger he is unsparing of his life, knowing that there are conditions
on which life is not worth having. And he is the sort of man to confer
benefits, but he is ashamed of receiving them; for the one is the
mark of a superior, the other of an inferior. And he is apt to confer
greater benefits in return; for thus the original benefactor besides
being paid will incur a debt to him, and will be the gainer by the
transaction. They seem also to remember any service they have done,
but not those they have received (for he who receives a service is
inferior to him who has done it, but the proud man wishes to be superior),
and to hear of the former with pleasure, of the latter with displeasure;
this, it seems, is why Thetis did not mention to Zeus the services
she had done him, and why the Spartans did not recount their services
to the Athenians, but those they had received. It is a mark of the
proud man also to ask for nothing or scarcely anything, but to give
help readily, and to be dignified towards people who enjoy high position
and good fortune, but unassuming towards those of the middle class;
for it is a difficult and lofty thing to be superior to the former,
but easy to be so to the latter, and a lofty bearing over the former
is no mark of ill-breeding, but among humble people it is as vulgar
as a display of strength against the weak. Again, it is characteristic
of the proud man not to aim at the things commonly held in honour,
or the things in which others excel; to be sluggish and to hold back
except where great honour or a great work is at stake, and to be a
man of few deeds, but of great and notable ones. He must also be open
in his hate and in his love (for to conceal one’s feelings, i.e. to
care less for truth than for what people will think, is a coward’s
part), and must speak and act openly; for he is free of speech because
he is contemptuous, and he is given to telling the truth, except when
he speaks in irony to the vulgar. He must be unable to make his life
revolve round another, unless it be a friend; for this is slavish,
and for this reason all flatterers are servile and people lacking
in self-respect are flatterers. Nor is he given to admiration; for
nothing to him is great. Nor is he mindful of wrongs; for it is not
the part of a proud man to have a long memory, especially for wrongs,
but rather to overlook them. Nor is he a gossip; for he will speak
neither about himself nor about another, since he cares not to be
praised nor for others to be blamed; nor again is he given to praise;
and for the same reason he is not an evil-speaker, even about his
enemies, except from haughtiness. With regard to necessary or small
matters he is least of all me given to lamentation or the asking of
favours; for it is the part of one who takes such matters seriously
to behave so with respect to them. He is one who will possess beautiful
and profitless things rather than profitable and useful ones; for
this is more proper to a character that suffices to itself.

Further, a slow step is thought proper to the proud man, a deep voice,
and a level utterance; for the man who takes few things seriously
is not likely to be hurried, nor the man who thinks nothing great
to be excited, while a shrill voice and a rapid gait are the results
of hurry and excitement.

Such, then, is the proud man; the man who falls short of him is unduly
humble, and the man who goes beyond him is vain. Now even these are
not thought to be bad (for they are not malicious), but only mistaken.
For the unduly humble man, being worthy of good things, robs himself
of what he deserves, and to have something bad about him from the
fact that he does not think himself worthy of good things, and seems
also not to know himself; else he would have desired the things he
was worthy of, since these were good. Yet such people are not thought
to be fools, but rather unduly retiring. Such a reputation, however,
seems actually to make them worse; for each class of people aims at
what corresponds to its worth, and these people stand back even from
noble actions and undertakings, deeming themselves unworthy, and from
external goods no less. Vain people, on the other hand, are fools
and ignorant of themselves, and that manifestly; for, not being worthy
of them, they attempt honourable undertakings, and then are found
out; and tetadorn themselves with clothing and outward show and such
things, and wish their strokes of good fortune to be made public,
and speak about them as if they would be honoured for them. But undue
humility is more opposed to pride than vanity is; for it is both commoner
and worse.

Pride, then, is concerned with honour on the grand scale, as has been
said.

4

There seems to be in the sphere of honour also, as was said in our
first remarks on the subject, a virtue which would appear to be related
to pride as liberality is to magnificence. For neither of these has
anything to do with the grand scale, but both dispose us as is right
with regard to middling and unimportant objects; as in getting and
giving of wealth there is a mean and an excess and defect, so too
honour may be desired more than is right, or less, or from the right
sources and in the right way. We blame both the ambitious man as am
at honour more than is right and from wrong sources, and the unambitious
man as not willing to be honoured even for noble reasons. But sometimes
we praise the ambitious man as being manly and a lover of what is
noble, and the unambitious man as being moderate and self-controlled,
as we said in our first treatment of the subject. Evidently, since
‘fond of such and such an object’ has more than one meaning, we do
not assign the term ‘ambition’ or ‘love of honour’ always to the same
thing, but when we praise the quality we think of the man who loves
honour more than most people, and when we blame it we think of him
who loves it more than is right. The mean being without a name, the
extremes seem to dispute for its place as though that were vacant
by default. But where there is excess and defect, there is also an
intermediate; now men desire honour both more than they should and
less; therefore it is possible also to do so as one should; at all
events this is the state of character that is praised, being an unnamed
mean in respect of honour. Relatively to ambition it seems to be unambitiousness,
and relatively to unambitiousness it seems to be ambition, while relatively
to both severally it seems in a sense to be both together. This appears
to be true of the other virtues also. But in this case the extremes
seem to be contradictories because the mean has not received a name.

5

Good temper is a mean with respect to anger; the middle state being
unnamed, and the extremes almost without a name as well, we place
good temper in the middle position, though it inclines towards the
deficiency, which is without a name. The excess might called a sort
of ‘irascibility’. For the passion is anger, while its causes are
many and diverse.

The man who is angry at the right things and with the right people,
and, further, as he ought, when he ought, and as long as he ought,
is praised. This will be the good-tempered man, then, since good temper
is praised. For the good-tempered man tends to be unperturbed and
not to be led by passion, but to be angry in the manner, at the things,
and for the length of time, that the rule dictates; but he is thought
to err rather in the direction of deficiency; for the good-tempered
man is not revengeful, but rather tends to make allowances.

The deficiency, whether it is a sort of ‘inirascibility’ or whatever
it is, is blamed. For those who are not angry at the things they should
be angry at are thought to be fools, and so are those who are not
angry in the right way, at the right time, or with the right persons;
for such a man is thought not to feel things nor to be pained by them,
and, since he does not get angry, he is thought unlikely to defend
himself; and to endure being insulted and put up with insult to one’s
friends is slavish.

The excess can be manifested in all the points that have been named
(for one can be angry with the wrong persons, at the wrong things,
more than is right, too quickly, or too long); yet all are not found
in the same person. Indeed they could not; for evil destroys even
itself, and if it is complete becomes unbearable. Now hot-tempered
people get angry quickly and with the wrong persons and at the wrong
things and more than is right, but their anger ceases quickly-which
is the best point about them. This happens to them because they do
not restrain their anger but retaliate openly owing to their quickness
of temper, and then their anger ceases. By reason of excess choleric
people are quick-tempered and ready to be angry with everything and
on every occasion; whence their name. Sulky people are hard to appease,
and retain their anger long; for they repress their passion. But it
ceases when they retaliate; for revenge relieves them of their anger,
producing in them pleasure instead of pain. If this does not happen
they retain their burden; for owing to its not being obvious no one
even reasons with them, and to digest one’s anger in oneself takes
time. Such people are most troublesome to themselves and to their
dearest friends. We call had-tempered those who are angry at the wrong
things, more than is right, and longer, and cannot be appeased until
they inflict vengeance or punishment.

To good temper we oppose the excess rather than the defect; for not
only is it commoner since revenge is the more human), but bad-tempered
people are worse to live with.

What we have said in our earlier treatment of the subject is plain
also from what we are now saying; viz. that it is not easy to define
how, with whom, at what, and how long one should be angry, and at
what point right action ceases and wrong begins. For the man who strays
a little from the path, either towards the more or towards the less,
is not blamed; since sometimes we praise those who exhibit the deficiency,
and call them good-tempered, and sometimes we call angry people manly,
as being capable of ruling. How far, therefore, and how a man must
stray before he becomes blameworthy, it is not easy to state in words;
for the decision depends on the particular facts and on perception.
But so much at least is plain, that the middle state is praiseworthy-
that in virtue of which we are angry with the right people, at the
right things, in the right way, and so on, while the excesses and
defects are blameworthy- slightly so if they are present in a low
degree, more if in a higher degree, and very much if in a high degree.
Evidently, then, we must cling to the middle state.- Enough of the
states relative to anger.

6

In gatherings of men, in social life and the interchange of words
and deeds, some men are thought to be obsequious, viz. those who to
give pleasure praise everything and never oppose, but think it their
duty ‘to give no pain to the people they meet’; while those who, on
the contrary, oppose everything and care not a whit about giving pain
are called churlish and contentious. That the states we have named
are culpable is plain enough, and that the middle state is laudable-
that in virtue of which a man will put up with, and will resent, the
right things and in the right way; but no name has been assigned to
it, though it most resembles friendship. For the man who corresponds
to this middle state is very much what, with affection added, we call
a good friend. But the state in question differs from friendship in
that it implies no passion or affection for one’s associates; since
it is not by reason of loving or hating that such a man takes everything
in the right way, but by being a man of a certain kind. For he will
behave so alike towards those he knows and those he does not know,
towards intimates and those who are not so, except that in each of
these cases he will behave as is befitting; for it is not proper to
have the same care for intimates and for strangers, nor again is it
the same conditions that make it right to give pain to them. Now we
have said generally that he will associate with people in the right
way; but it is by reference to what is honourable and expedient that
he will aim at not giving pain or at contributing pleasure. For he
seems to be concerned with the pleasures and pains of social life;
and wherever it is not honourable, or is harmful, for him to contribute
pleasure, he will refuse, and will choose rather to give pain; also
if his acquiescence in another’s action would bring disgrace, and
that in a high degree, or injury, on that other, while his opposition
brings a little pain, he will not acquiesce but will decline. He will
associate differently with people in high station and with ordinary
people, with closer and more distant acquaintances, and so too with
regard to all other differences, rendering to each class what is befitting,
and while for its own sake he chooses to contribute pleasure, and
avoids the giving of pain, he will be guided by the consequences,
if these are greater, i.e. honour and expediency. For the sake of
a great future pleasure, too, he will inflict small pains.

The man who attains the mean, then, is such as we have described,
but has not received a name; of those who contribute pleasure, the
man who aims at being pleasant with no ulterior object is obsequious,
but the man who does so in order that he may get some advantage in
the direction of money or the things that money buys is a flatterer;
while the man who quarrels with everything is, as has been said, churlish
and contentious. And the extremes seem to be contradictory to each
other because the mean is without a name.

7

The mean opposed to boastfulness is found in almost the same sphere;
and this also is without a name. It will be no bad plan to describe
these states as well; for we shall both know the facts about character
better if we go through them in detail, and we shall be convinced
that the virtues are means if we see this to be so in all cases. In
the field of social life those who make the giving of pleasure or
pain their object in associating with others have been described;
let us now describe those who pursue truth or falsehood alike in words
and deeds and in the claims they put forward. The boastful man, then,
is thought to be apt to claim the things that bring glory, when he
has not got them, or to claim more of them than he has, and the mock-modest
man on the other hand to disclaim what he has or belittle it, while
the man who observes the mean is one who calls a thing by its own
name, being truthful both in life and in word, owning to what he has,
and neither more nor less. Now each of these courses may be adopted
either with or without an object. But each man speaks and acts and
lives in accordance with his character, if he is not acting for some
ulterior object. And falsehood is in itself mean and culpable, and
truth noble and worthy of praise. Thus the truthful man is another
case of a man who, being in the mean, is worthy of praise, and both
forms of untruthful man are culpable, and particularly the boastful
man.

Let us discuss them both, but first of all the truthful man. We are
not speaking of the man who keeps faith in his agreements, i.e. in
the things that pertain to justice or injustice (for this would belong
to another virtue), but the man who in the matters in which nothing
of this sort is at stake is true both in word and in life because
his character is such. But such a man would seem to be as a matter
of fact equitable. For the man who loves truth, and is truthful where
nothing is at stake, will still more be truthful where something is
at stake; he will avoid falsehood as something base, seeing that he
avoided it even for its own sake; and such a man is worthy of praise.
He inclines rather to understate the truth; for this seems in better
taste because exaggerations are wearisome.

He who claims more than he has with no ulterior object is a contemptible
sort of fellow (otherwise he would not have delighted in falsehood),
but seems futile rather than bad; but if he does it for an object,
he who does it for the sake of reputation or honour is (for a boaster)
not very much to be blamed, but he who does it for money, or the things
that lead to money, is an uglier character (it is not the capacity
that makes the boaster, but the purpose; for it is in virtue of his
state of character and by being a man of a certain kind that he is
boaster); as one man is a liar because he enjoys the lie itself, and
another because he desires reputation or gain. Now those who boast
for the sake of reputation claim such qualities as will praise or
congratulation, but those whose object is gain claim qualities which
are of value to one’s neighbours and one’s lack of which is not easily
detected, e.g. the powers of a seer, a sage, or a physician. For this
reason it is such things as these that most people claim and boast
about; for in them the above-mentioned qualities are found.

Mock-modest people, who understate things, seem more attractive in
character; for they are thought to speak not for gain but to avoid
parade; and here too it is qualities which bring reputation that they
disclaim, as Socrates used to do. Those who disclaim trifling and
obvious qualities are called humbugs and are more contemptible; and
sometimes this seems to be boastfulness, like the Spartan dress; for
both excess and great deficiency are boastful. But those who use understatement
with moderation and understate about matters that do not very much
force themselves on our notice seem attractive. And it is the boaster
that seems to be opposed to the truthful man; for he is the worse
character.

8

Since life includes rest as well as activity, and in this is included
leisure and amusement, there seems here also to be a kind of intercourse
which is tasteful; there is such a thing as saying- and again listening
to- what one should and as one should. The kind of people one is speaking
or listening to will also make a difference. Evidently here also there
is both an excess and a deficiency as compared with the mean. Those
who carry humour to excess are thought to be vulgar buffoons, striving
after humour at all costs, and aiming rather at raising a laugh than
at saying what is becoming and at avoiding pain to the object of their
fun; while those who can neither make a joke themselves nor put up
with those who do are thought to be boorish and unpolished. But those
who joke in a tasteful way are called ready-witted, which implies
a sort of readiness to turn this way and that; for such sallies are
thought to be movements of the character, and as bodies are discriminated
by their movements, so too are characters. The ridiculous side of
things is not far to seek, however, and most people delight more than
they should in amusement and in jestinly. and so even buffoons are
called ready-witted because they are found attractive; but that they
differ from the ready-witted man, and to no small extent, is clear
from what has been said.

To the middle state belongs also tact; it is the mark of a tactful
man to say and listen to such things as befit a good and well-bred
man; for there are some things that it befits such a man to say and
to hear by way of jest, and the well-bred man’s jesting differs from
that of a vulgar man, and the joking of an educated man from that
of an uneducated. One may see this even from the old and the new comedies;
to the authors of the former indecency of language was amusing, to
those of the latter innuendo is more so; and these differ in no small
degree in respect of propriety. Now should we define the man who jokes
well by his saying what is not unbecoming to a well-bred man, or by
his not giving pain, or even giving delight, to the hearer? Or is
the latter definition, at any rate, itself indefinite, since different
things are hateful or pleasant to different people? The kind of jokes
he will listen to will be the same; for the kind he can put up with
are also the kind he seems to make. There are, then, jokes he will
not make; for the jest is a sort of abuse, and there are things that
lawgivers forbid us to abuse; and they should, perhaps, have forbidden
us even to make a jest of such. The refined and well-bred man, therefore,
will be as we have described, being as it were a law to himself.

Such, then, is the man who observes the mean, whether he be called
tactful or ready-witted. The buffoon, on the other hand, is the slave
of his sense of humour, and spares neither himself nor others if he
can raise a laugh, and says things none of which a man of refinement
would say, and to some of which he would not even listen. The boor,
again, is useless for such social intercourse; for he contributes
nothing and finds fault with everything. But relaxation and amusement
are thought to be a necessary element in life.

The means in life that have been described, then, are three in number,
and are all concerned with an interchange of words and deeds of some
kind. They differ, however, in that one is concerned with truth; and
the other two with pleasantness. Of those concerned with pleasure,
one is displayed in jests, the other in the general social intercourse
of life.

9

Shame should not be described as a virtue; for it is more like a feeling
than a state of character. It is defined, at any rate, as a kind of
fear of dishonour, and produces an effect similar to that produced
by fear of danger; for people who feel disgraced blush, and those
who fear death turn pale. Both, therefore, seem to be in a sense bodily
conditions, which is thought to be characteristic of feeling rather
than of a state of character.

The feeling is not becoming to every age, but only to youth. For we
think young people should be prone to the feeling of shame because
they live by feeling and therefore commit many errors, but are restrained
by shame; and we praise young people who are prone to this feeling,
but an older person no one would praise for being prone to the sense
of disgrace, since we think he should not do anything that need cause
this sense. For the sense of disgrace is not even characteristic of
a good man, since it is consequent on bad actions (for such actions
should not be done; and if some actions are disgraceful in very truth
and others only according to common opinion, this makes no difference;
for neither class of actions should be done, so that no disgrace should
be felt); and it is a mark of a bad man even to be such as to do any
disgraceful action. To be so constituted as to feel disgraced if one
does such an action, and for this reason to think oneself good, is
absurd; for it is for voluntary actions that shame is felt, and the
good man will never voluntarily do bad actions. But shame may be said
to be conditionally a good thing; if a good man does such actions,
he will feel disgraced; but the virtues are not subject to such a
qualification. And if shamelessness-not to be ashamed of doing base
actions-is bad, that does not make it good to be ashamed of doing
such actions. Continence too is not virtue, but a mixed sort of state;
this will be shown later. Now, however, let us discuss justice.

Book V On justice and injustice

BOOK V

1

With regards to justice and injustice we must (1) consider what kind
of actions they are concerned with, (2) what sort of mean justice
is, and (3) between what extremes the just act is intermediate. Our
investigation shall follow the same course as the preceding discussions.

We see that all men mean by justice that kind of state of character
which makes people disposed to do what is just and makes them act
justly and wish for what is just; and similarly by injustice that
state which makes them act unjustly and wish for what is unjust. Let
us too, then, lay this down as a general basis. For the same is not
true of the sciences and the faculties as of states of character.
A faculty or a science which is one and the same is held to relate
to contrary objects, but a state of character which is one of two
contraries does not produce the contrary results; e.g. as a result
of health we do not do what is the opposite of healthy, but only what
is healthy; for we say a man walks healthily, when he walks as a healthy
man would.

Now often one contrary state is recognized from its contrary, and
often states are recognized from the subjects that exhibit them; for
(A) if good condition is known, bad condition also becomes known,
and (B) good condition is known from the things that are in good condition,
and they from it. If good condition is firmness of flesh, it is necessary
both that bad condition should be flabbiness of flesh and that the
wholesome should be that which causes firmness in flesh. And it follows
for the most part that if one contrary is ambiguous the other also
will be ambiguous; e.g. if ‘just’ is so, that ‘unjust’ will be so
too.

Now ‘justice’ and ‘injustice’ seem to be ambiguous, but because their
different meanings approach near to one another the ambiguity escapes
notice and is not obvious as it is, comparatively, when the meanings
are far apart, e.g. (for here the difference in outward form is great)
as the ambiguity in the use of kleis for the collar-bone of an animal
and for that with which we lock a door. Let us take as a starting-point,
then, the various meanings of ‘an unjust man’. Both the lawless man
and the grasping and unfair man are thought to be unjust, so that
evidently both the law-abiding and the fair man will be just. The
just, then, is the lawful and the fair, the unjust the unlawful and
the unfair.

Since the unjust man is grasping, he must be concerned with goods-not
all goods, but those with which prosperity and adversity have to do,
which taken absolutely are always good, but for a particular person
are not always good. Now men pray for and pursue these things; but
they should not, but should pray that the things that are good absolutely
may also be good for them, and should choose the things that are good
for them. The unjust man does not always choose the greater, but also
the less-in the case of things bad absolutely; but because the lesser
evil is itself thought to be in a sense good, and graspingness is
directed at the good, therefore he is thought to be grasping. And
he is unfair; for this contains and is common to both.

Since the lawless man was seen to be unjust and the law-abiding man
just, evidently all lawful acts are in a sense just acts; for the
acts laid down by the legislative art are lawful, and each of these,
we say, is just. Now the laws in their enactments on all subjects
aim at the common advantage either of all or of the best or of those
who hold power, or something of the sort; so that in one sense we
call those acts just that tend to produce and preserve happiness and
its components for the political society. And the law bids us do both
the acts of a brave man (e.g. not to desert our post nor take to flight
nor throw away our arms), and those of a temperate man (e.g. not to
commit adultery nor to gratify one’s lust), and those of a good-tempered
man (e.g. not to strike another nor to speak evil), and similarly
with regard to the other virtues and forms of wickedness, commanding
some acts and forbidding others; and the rightly-framed law does this
rightly, and the hastily conceived one less well. This form of justice,
then, is complete virtue, but not absolutely, but in relation to our
neighbour. And therefore justice is often thought to be the greatest
of virtues, and ‘neither evening nor morning star’ is so wonderful;
and proverbially ‘in justice is every virtue comprehended’. And it
is complete virtue in its fullest sense, because it is the actual
exercise of complete virtue. It is complete because he who possesses
it can exercise his virtue not only in himself but towards his neighbour
also; for many men can exercise virtue in their own affairs, but not
in their relations to their neighbour. This is why the saying of Bias
is thought to be true, that ‘rule will show the man’; for a ruler
is necessarily in relation to other men and a member of a society.
For this same reason justice, alone of the virtues, is thought to
be ‘another’s good’, because it is related to our neighbour; for it
does what is advantageous to another, either a ruler or a copartner.
Now the worst man is he who exercises his wickedness both towards
himself and towards his friends, and the best man is not he who exercises
his virtue towards himself but he who exercises it towards another;
for this is a difficult task. Justice in this sense, then, is not
part of virtue but virtue entire, nor is the contrary injustice a
part of vice but vice entire. What the difference is between virtue
and justice in this sense is plain from what we have said; they are
the same but their essence is not the same; what, as a relation to
one’s neighbour, is justice is, as a certain kind of state without
qualification, virtue.

2

But at all events what we are investigating is the justice which is
a part of virtue; for there is a justice of this kind, as we maintain.
Similarly it is with injustice in the particular sense that we are
concerned.

That there is such a thing is indicated by the fact that while the
man who exhibits in action the other forms of wickedness acts wrongly
indeed, but not graspingly (e.g. the man who throws away his shield
through cowardice or speaks harshly through bad temper or fails to
help a friend with money through meanness), when a man acts graspingly
he often exhibits none of these vices,-no, nor all together, but certainly
wickedness of some kind (for we blame him) and injustice. There is,
then, another kind of injustice which is a part of injustice in the
wide sense, and a use of the word ‘unjust’ which answers to a part
of what is unjust in the wide sense of ‘contrary to the law’. Again
if one man commits adultery for the sake of gain and makes money by
it, while another does so at the bidding of appetite though he loses
money and is penalized for it, the latter would be held to be self-indulgent
rather than grasping, but the former is unjust, but not self-indulgent;
evidently, therefore, he is unjust by reason of his making gain by
his act. Again, all other unjust acts are ascribed invariably to some
particular kind of wickedness, e.g. adultery to self-indulgence, the
desertion of a comrade in battle to cowardice, physical violence to
anger; but if a man makes gain, his action is ascribed to no form
of wickedness but injustice. Evidently, therefore, there is apart
from injustice in the wide sense another, ‘particular’, injustice
which shares the name and nature of the first, because its definition
falls within the same genus; for the significance of both consists
in a relation to one’s neighbour, but the one is concerned with honour
or money or safety-or that which includes all these, if we had a single
name for it-and its motive is the pleasure that arises from gain;
while the other is concerned with all the objects with which the good
man is concerned.

It is clear, then, that there is more than one kind of justice, and
that there is one which is distinct from virtue entire; we must try
to grasp its genus and differentia.

The unjust has been divided into the unlawful and the unfair, and
the just into the lawful and the fair. To the unlawful answers the
afore-mentioned sense of injustice. But since unfair and the unlawful
are not the same, but are different as a part is from its whole (for
all that is unfair is unlawful, but not all that is unlawful is unfair),
the unjust and injustice in the sense of the unfair are not the same
as but different from the former kind, as part from whole; for injustice
in this sense is a part of injustice in the wide sense, and similarly
justice in the one sense of justice in the other. Therefore we must
speak also about particular justice and particular and similarly about
the just and the unjust. The justice, then, which answers to the whole
of virtue, and the corresponding injustice, one being the exercise
of virtue as a whole, and the other that of vice as a whole, towards
one’s neighbour, we may leave on one side. And how the meanings of
‘just’ and ‘unjust’ which answer to these are to be distinguished
is evident; for practically the majority of the acts commanded by
the law are those which are prescribed from the point of view of virtue
taken as a whole; for the law bids us practise every virtue and forbids
us to practise any vice. And the things that tend to produce virtue
taken as a whole are those of the acts prescribed by the law which
have been prescribed with a view to education for the common good.
But with regard to the education of the individual as such, which
makes him without qualification a good man, we must determine later
whether this is the function of the political art or of another; for
perhaps it is not the same to be a good man and a good citizen of
any state taken at random.

Of particular justice and that which is just in the corresponding
sense, (A) one kind is that which is manifested in distributions of
honour or money or the other things that fall to be divided among
those who have a share in the constitution (for in these it is possible
for one man to have a share either unequal or equal to that of another),
and (B) one is that which plays a rectifying part in transactions
between man and man. Of this there are two divisions; of transactions
(1) some are voluntary and (2) others involuntary- voluntary such
transactions as sale, purchase, loan for consumption, pledging, loan
for use, depositing, letting (they are called voluntary because the
origin of these transactions is voluntary), while of the involuntary
(a) some are clandestine, such as theft, adultery, poisoning, procuring,
enticement of slaves, assassination, false witness, and (b) others
are violent, such as assault, imprisonment, murder, robbery with violence,
mutilation, abuse, insult.

3

(A) We have shown that both the unjust man and the unjust act are
unfair or unequal; now it is clear that there is also an intermediate
between the two unequals involved in either case. And this is the
equal; for in any kind of action in which there’s a more and a less
there is also what is equal. If, then, the unjust is unequal, just
is equal, as all men suppose it to be, even apart from argument. And
since the equal is intermediate, the just will be an intermediate.
Now equality implies at least two things. The just, then, must be
both intermediate and equal and relative (i.e. for certain persons).
And since the equall intermediate it must be between certain things
(which are respectively greater and less); equal, it involves two
things; qua just, it is for certain people. The just, therefore, involves
at least four terms; for the persons for whom it is in fact just are
two, and the things in which it is manifested, the objects distributed,
are two. And the same equality will exist between the persons and
between the things concerned; for as the latter the things concerned-are
related, so are the former; if they are not equal, they will not have
what is equal, but this is the origin of quarrels and complaints-when
either equals have and are awarded unequal shares, or unequals equal
shares. Further, this is plain from the fact that awards should be
‘according to merit’; for all men agree that what is just in distribution
must be according to merit in some sense, though they do not all specify
the same sort of merit, but democrats identify it with the status
of freeman, supporters of oligarchy with wealth (or with noble birth),
and supporters of aristocracy with excellence.

The just, then, is a species of the proportionate (proportion being
not a property only of the kind of number which consists of abstract
units, but of number in general). For proportion is equality of ratios,
and involves four terms at least (that discrete proportion involves
four terms is plain, but so does continuous proportion, for it uses
one term as two and mentions it twice; e.g. ‘as the line A is to the
line B, so is the line B to the line C’; the line B, then, has been
mentioned twice, so that if the line B be assumed twice, the proportional
terms will be four); and the just, too, involves at least four terms,
and the ratio between one pair is the same as that between the other
pair; for there is a similar distinction between the persons and between
the things. As the term A, then, is to B, so will C be to D, and therefore,
alternando, as A is to C, B will be to D. Therefore also the whole
is in the same ratio to the whole; and this coupling the distribution
effects, and, if the terms are so combined, effects justly. The conjunction,
then, of the term A with C and of B with D is what is just in distribution,
and this species of the just is intermediate, and the unjust is what
violates the proportion; for the proportional is intermediate, and
the just is proportional. (Mathematicians call this kind of proportion
geometrical; for it is in geometrical proportion that it follows that
the whole is to the whole as either part is to the corresponding part.)
This proportion is not continuous; for we cannot get a single term
standing for a person and a thing.

This, then, is what the just is-the proportional; the unjust is what
violates the proportion. Hence one term becomes too great, the other
too small, as indeed happens in practice; for the man who acts unjustly
has too much, and the man who is unjustly treated too little, of what
is good. In the case of evil the reverse is true; for the lesser evil
is reckoned a good in comparison with the greater evil, since the
lesser evil is rather to be chosen than the greater, and what is worthy
of choice is good, and what is worthier of choice a greater good.

This, then, is one species of the just.
4

(B) The remaining one is the rectificatory, which arises in connexion
with transactions both voluntary and involuntary. This form of the
just has a different specific character from the former. For the justice
which distributes common possessions is always in accordance with
the kind of proportion mentioned above (for in the case also in which
the distribution is made from the common funds of a partnership it
will be according to the same ratio which the funds put into the business
by the partners bear to one another); and the injustice opposed to
this kind of justice is that which violates the proportion. But the
justice in transactions between man and man is a sort of equality
indeed, and the injustice a sort of inequality; not according to that
kind of proportion, however, but according to arithmetical proportion.
For it makes no difference whether a good man has defrauded a bad
man or a bad man a good one, nor whether it is a good or a bad man
that has committed adultery; the law looks only to the distinctive
character of the injury, and treats the parties as equal, if one is
in the wrong and the other is being wronged, and if one inflicted
injury and the other has received it. Therefore, this kind of injustice
being an inequality, the judge tries to equalize it; for in the case
also in which one has received and the other has inflicted a wound,
or one has slain and the other been slain, the suffering and the action
have been unequally distributed; but the judge tries to equalize by
means of the penalty, taking away from the gain of the assailant.
For the term ‘gain’ is applied generally to such cases, even if it
be not a term appropriate to certain cases, e.g. to the person who
inflicts a woundand ‘loss’ to the sufferer; at all events when the
suffering has been estimated, the one is called loss and the other
gain. Therefore the equal is intermediate between the greater and
the less, but the gain and the loss are respectively greater and less
in contrary ways; more of the good and less of the evil are gain,
and the contrary is loss; intermediate between them is, as we saw,
equal, which we say is just; therefore corrective justice will be
the intermediate between loss and gain. This is why, when people dispute,
they take refuge in the judge; and to go to the judge is to go to
justice; for the nature of the judge is to be a sort of animate justice;
and they seek the judge as an intermediate, and in some states they
call judges mediators, on the assumption that if they get what is
intermediate they will get what is just. The just, then, is an intermediate,
since the judge is so. Now the judge restores equality; it is as though
there were a line divided into unequal parts, and he took away that
by which the greater segment exceeds the half, and added it to the
smaller segment. And when the whole has been equally divided, then
they say they have ‘their own’-i.e. when they have got what is equal.
The equal is intermediate between the greater and the lesser line
according to arithmetical proportion. It is for this reason also that
it is called just (sikaion), because it is a division into two equal
parts (sicha), just as if one were to call it sichaion; and the judge
(sikastes) is one who bisects (sichastes). For when something is subtracted
from one of two equals and added to the other, the other is in excess
by these two; since if what was taken from the one had not been added
to the other, the latter would have been in excess by one only. It
therefore exceeds the intermediate by one, and the intermediate exceeds
by one that from which something was taken. By this, then, we shall
recognize both what we must subtract from that which has more, and
what we must add to that which has less; we must add to the latter
that by which the intermediate exceeds it, and subtract from the greatest
that by which it exceeds the intermediate. Let the lines AA’, BB’,
CC’ be equal to one another; from the line AA’ let the segment AE
have been subtracted, and to the line CC’ let the segment Cd have
been added, so that the whole line DCC’ exceeds the line EA’ by the
segment CD and the segment CF; therefore it exceeds the line Bb’ by
the segment CD. (See diagram.)

These names, both loss and gain, have come from voluntary exchange;
for to have more than one’s own is called gaining, and to have less
than one’s original share is called losing, e.g. in buying and selling
and in all other matters in which the law has left people free to
make their own terms; but when they get neither more nor less but
just what belongs to themselves, they say that they have their own
and that they neither lose nor gain.

Therefore the just is intermediate between a sort of gain and a sort
of loss, viz. those which are involuntary; it consists in having an
equal amount before and after the transaction.

5

Some think that reciprocity is without qualification just, as the
Pythagoreans said; for they defined justice without qualification
as reciprocity. Now ‘reciprocity’ fits neither distributive nor rectificatory
justice-yet people want even the justice of Rhadamanthus to mean this:

Should a man suffer what he did, right justice would be done -for
in many cases reciprocity and rectificatory justice are not in accord;
e.g. (1) if an official has inflicted a wound, he should not be wounded
in return, and if some one has wounded an official, he ought not to
be wounded only but punished in addition. Further (2) there is a great
difference between a voluntary and an involuntary act. But in associations
for exchange this sort of justice does hold men together-reciprocity
in accordance with a proportion and not on the basis of precisely
equal return. For it is by proportionate requital that the city holds
together. Men seek to return either evil for evil-and if they cana
not do so, think their position mere slavery-or good for good-and
if they cannot do so there is no exchange, but it is by exchange that
they hold together. This is why they give a prominent place to the
temple of the Graces-to promote the requital of services; for this
is characteristic of grace-we should serve in return one who has shown
grace to us, and should another time take the initiative in showing
it.

Now proportionate return is secured by cross-conjunction. Let A be
a builder, B a shoemaker, C a house, D a shoe. The builder, then,
must get from the shoemaker the latter’s work, and must himself give
him in return his own. If, then, first there is proportionate equality
of goods, and then reciprocal action takes place, the result we mention
will be effected. If not, the bargain is not equal, and does not hold;
for there is nothing to prevent the work of the one being better than
that of the other; they must therefore be equated. (And this is true
of the other arts also; for they would have been destroyed if what
the patient suffered had not been just what the agent did, and of
the same amount and kind.) For it is not two doctors that associate
for exchange, but a doctor and a farmer, or in general people who
are different and unequal; but these must be equated. This is why
all things that are exchanged must be somehow comparable. It is for
this end that money has been introduced, and it becomes in a sense
an intermediate; for it measures all things, and therefore the excess
and the defect-how many shoes are equal to a house or to a given amount
of food. The number of shoes exchanged for a house (or for a given
amount of food) must therefore correspond to the ratio of builder
to shoemaker. For if this be not so, there will be no exchange and
no intercourse. And this proportion will not be effected unless the
goods are somehow equal. All goods must therefore be measured by some
one thing, as we said before. Now this unit is in truth demand, which
holds all things together (for if men did not need one another’s goods
at all, or did not need them equally, there would be either no exchange
or not the same exchange); but money has become by convention a sort
of representative of demand; and this is why it has the name ‘money’
(nomisma)-because it exists not by nature but by law (nomos) and it
is in our power to change it and make it useless. There will, then,
be reciprocity when the terms have been equated so that as farmer
is to shoemaker, the amount of the shoemaker’s work is to that of
the farmer’s work for which it exchanges. But we must not bring them
into a figure of proportion when they have already exchanged (otherwise
one extreme will have both excesses), but when they still have their
own goods. Thus they are equals and associates just because this equality
can be effected in their case. Let A be a farmer, C food, B a shoemaker,
D his product equated to C. If it had not been possible for reciprocity
to be thus effected, there would have been no association of the parties.
That demand holds things together as a single unit is shown by the
fact that when men do not need one another, i.e. when neither needs
the other or one does not need the other, they do not exchange, as
we do when some one wants what one has oneself, e.g. when people permit
the exportation of corn in exchange for wine. This equation therefore
must be established. And for the future exchange-that if we do not
need a thing now we shall have it if ever we do need it-money is as
it were our surety; for it must be possible for us to get what we
want by bringing the money. Now the same thing happens to money itself
as to goods-it is not always worth the same; yet it tends to be steadier.
This is why all goods must have a price set on them; for then there
will always be exchange, and if so, association of man with man. Money,
then, acting as a measure, makes goods commensurate and equates them;
for neither would there have been association if there were not exchange,
nor exchange if there were not equality, nor equality if there were
not commensurability. Now in truth it is impossible that things differing
so much should become commensurate, but with reference to demand they
may become so sufficiently. There must, then, be a unit, and that
fixed by agreement (for which reason it is called money); for it is
this that makes all things commensurate, since all things are measured
by money. Let A be a house, B ten minae, C a bed. A is half of B,
if the house is worth five minae or equal to them; the bed, C, is
a tenth of B; it is plain, then, how many beds are equal to a house,
viz. five. That exchange took place thus before there was money is
plain; for it makes no difference whether it is five beds that exchange
for a house, or the money value of five beds.

We have now defined the unjust and the just. These having been marked
off from each other, it is plain that just action is intermediate
between acting unjustly and being unjustly treated; for the one is
to have too much and the other to have too little. Justice is a kind
of mean, but not in the same way as the other virtues, but because
it relates to an intermediate amount, while injustice relates to the
extremes. And justice is that in virtue of which the just man is said
to be a doer, by choice, of that which is just, and one who will distribute
either between himself and another or between two others not so as
to give more of what is desirable to himself and less to his neighbour
(and conversely with what is harmful), but so as to give what is equal
in accordance with proportion; and similarly in distributing between
two other persons. Injustice on the other hand is similarly related
to the unjust, which is excess and defect, contrary to proportion,
of the useful or hurtful. For which reason injustice is excess and
defect, viz. because it is productive of excess and defect-in one’s
own case excess of what is in its own nature useful and defect of
what is hurtful, while in the case of others it is as a whole like
what it is in one’s own case, but proportion may be violated in either
direction. In the unjust act to have too little is to be unjustly
treated; to have too much is to act unjustly.

Let this be taken as our account of the nature of justice and injustice,
and similarly of the just and the unjust in general.

6

Since acting unjustly does not necessarily imply being unjust, we
must ask what sort of unjust acts imply that the doer is unjust with
respect to each type of injustice, e.g. a thief, an adulterer, or
a brigand. Surely the answer does not turn on the difference between
these types. For a man might even lie with a woman knowing who she
was, but the origin of his might be not deliberate choice but passion.
He acts unjustly, then, but is not unjust; e.g. a man is not a thief,
yet he stole, nor an adulterer, yet he committed adultery; and similarly
in all other cases.

Now we have previously stated how the reciprocal is related to the
just; but we must not forget that what we are looking for is not only
what is just without qualification but also political justice. This
is found among men who share their life with a view to selfsufficiency,
men who are free and either proportionately or arithmetically equal,
so that between those who do not fulfil this condition there is no
political justice but justice in a special sense and by analogy. For
justice exists only between men whose mutual relations are governed
by law; and law exists for men between whom there is injustice; for
legal justice is the discrimination of the just and the unjust. And
between men between whom there is injustice there is also unjust action
(though there is not injustice between all between whom there is unjust
action), and this is assigning too much to oneself of things good
in themselves and too little of things evil in themselves. This is
why we do not allow a man to rule, but rational principle, because
a man behaves thus in his own interests and becomes a tyrant. The
magistrate on the other hand is the guardian of justice, and, if of
justice, then of equality also. And since he is assumed to have no
more than his share, if he is just (for he does not assign to himself
more of what is good in itself, unless such a share is proportional
to his merits-so that it is for others that he labours, and it is
for this reason that men, as we stated previously, say that justice
is ‘another’s good’), therefore a reward must be given him, and this
is honour and privilege; but those for whom such things are not enough
become tyrants.

The justice of a master and that of a father are not the same as the
justice of citizens, though they are like it; for there can be no
injustice in the unqualified sense towards thing that are one’s own,
but a man’s chattel, and his child until it reaches a certain age
and sets up for itself, are as it were part of himself, and no one
chooses to hurt himself (for which reason there can be no injustice
towards oneself). Therefore the justice or injustice of citizens is
not manifested in these relations; for it was as we saw according
to law, and between people naturally subject to law, and these as
we saw’ are people who have an equal share in ruling and being ruled.
Hence justice can more truly be manifested towards a wife than towards
children and chattels, for the former is household justice; but even
this is different from political justice.

7

Of political justice part is natural, part legal, natural, that which
everywhere has the same force and does not exist by people’s thinking
this or that; legal, that which is originally indifferent, but when
it has been laid down is not indifferent, e.g. that a prisoner’s ransom
shall be a mina, or that a goat and not two sheep shall be sacrificed,
and again all the laws that are passed for particular cases, e.g.
that sacrifice shall be made in honour of Brasidas, and the provisions
of decrees. Now some think that all justice is of this sort, because
that which is by nature is unchangeable and has everywhere the same
force (as fire burns both here and in Persia), while they see change
in the things recognized as just. This, however, is not true in this
unqualified way, but is true in a sense; or rather, with the gods
it is perhaps not true at all, while with us there is something that
is just even by nature, yet all of it is changeable; but still some
is by nature, some not by nature. It is evident which sort of thing,
among things capable of being otherwise, is by nature, and which is
not but is legal and conventional, assuming that both are equally
changeable. And in all other things the same distinction will apply;
by nature the right hand is stronger, yet it is possible that all
men should come to be ambidextrous. The things which are just by virtue
of convention and expediency are like measures; for wine and corn
measures are not everywhere equal, but larger in wholesale and smaller
in retail markets. Similarly, the things which are just not by nature
but by human enactment are not everywhere the same, since constitutions
also are not the same, though there is but one which is everywhere
by nature the best. Of things just and lawful each is related as the
universal to its particulars; for the things that are done are many,
but of them each is one, since it is universal.

There is a difference between the act of injustice and what is unjust,
and between the act of justice and what is just; for a thing is unjust
by nature or by enactment; and this very thing, when it has been done,
is an act of injustice, but before it is done is not yet that but
is unjust. So, too, with an act of justice (though the general term
is rather ‘just action’, and ‘act of justice’ is applied to the correction
of the act of injustice).

Each of these must later be examined separately with regard to the
nature and number of its species and the nature of the things with
which it is concerned.

8

Acts just and unjust being as we have described them, a man acts unjustly
or justly whenever he does such acts voluntarily; when involuntarily,
he acts neither unjustly nor justly except in an incidental way; for
he does things which happen to be just or unjust. Whether an act is
or is not one of injustice (or of justice) is determined by its voluntariness
or involuntariness; for when it is voluntary it is blamed, and at
the same time is then an act of injustice; so that there will be things
that are unjust but not yet acts of injustice, if voluntariness be
not present as well. By the voluntary I mean, as has been said before,
any of the things in a man’s own power which he does with knowledge,
i.e. not in ignorance either of the person acted on or of the instrument
used or of the end that will be attained (e.g. whom he is striking,
with what, and to what end), each such act being done not incidentally
nor under compulsion (e.g. if A takes B’s hand and therewith strikes
C, B does not act voluntarily; for the act was not in his own power).
The person struck may be the striker’s father, and the striker may
know that it is a man or one of the persons present, but not know
that it is his father; a similar distinction may be made in the case
of the end, and with regard to the whole action. Therefore that which
is done in ignorance, or though not done in ignorance is not in the
agent’s power, or is done under compulsion, is involuntary (for many
natural processes, even, we knowingly both perform and experience,
none of which is either voluntary or involuntary; e.g. growing old
or dying). But in the case of unjust and just acts alike the injustice
or justice may be only incidental; for a man might return a deposit
unwillingly and from fear, and then he must not be said either to
do what is just or to act justly, except in an incidental way. Similarly
the man who under compulsion and unwillingly fails to return the deposit
must be said to act unjustly, and to do what is unjust, only incidentally.
Of voluntary acts we do some by choice, others not by choice; by choice
those which we do after deliberation, not by choice those which we
do without previous deliberation. Thus there are three kinds of injury
in transactions between man and man; those done in ignorance are mistakes
when the person acted on, the act, the instrument, or the end that
will be attained is other than the agent supposed; the agent thought
either that he was not hiting any one or that he was not hitting with
this missile or not hitting this person or to this end, but a result
followed other than that which he thought likely (e.g. he threw not
with intent to wound but only to prick), or the person hit or the
missile was other than he supposed. Now when (1) the injury takes
place contrary to reasonable expectation, it is a misadventure. When
(2) it is not contrary to reasonable expectation, but does not imply
vice, it is a mistake (for a man makes a mistake when the fault originates
in him, but is the victim of accident when the origin lies outside
him). When (3) he acts with knowledge but not after deliberation,
it is an act of injustice-e.g. the acts due to anger or to other passions
necessary or natural to man; for when men do such harmful and mistaken
acts they act unjustly, and the acts are acts of injustice, but this
does not imply that the doers are unjust or wicked; for the injury
is not due to vice. But when (4) a man acts from choice, he is an
unjust man and a vicious man.

Hence acts proceeding from anger are rightly judged not to be done
of malice aforethought; for it is not the man who acts in anger but
he who enraged him that starts the mischief. Again, the matter in
dispute is not whether the thing happened or not, but its justice;
for it is apparent injustice that occasions rage. For they do not
dispute about the occurrence of the act-as in commercial transactions
where one of the two parties must be vicious-unless they do so owing
to forgetfulness; but, agreeing about the fact, they dispute on which
side justice lies (whereas a man who has deliberately injured another
cannot help knowing that he has done so), so that the one thinks he
is being treated unjustly and the other disagrees.

But if a man harms another by choice, he acts unjustly; and these
are the acts of injustice which imply that the doer is an unjust man,
provided that the act violates proportion or equality. Similarly,
a man is just when he acts justly by choice; but he acts justly if
he merely acts voluntarily.

Of involuntary acts some are excusable, others not. For the mistakes
which men make not only in ignorance but also from ignorance are excusable,
while those which men do not from ignorance but (though they do them
in ignorance) owing to a passion which is neither natural nor such
as man is liable to, are not excusable.

9

Assuming that we have sufficiently defined the suffering and doing
of injustice, it may be asked (1) whether the truth in expressed in
Euripides’ paradoxical words:

I slew my mother, that’s my tale in brief.
Were you both willing, or unwilling both?

Is it truly possible to be willingly treated unjustly, or is all suffering
of injustice the contrary involuntary, as all unjust action is voluntary?
And is all suffering of injustice of the latter kind or else all of
the former, or is it sometimes voluntary, sometimes involuntary? So,
too, with the case of being justly treated; all just action is voluntary,
so that it is reasonable that there should be a similar opposition
in either case-that both being unjustly and being justly treated should
be either alike voluntary or alike involuntary. But it would be thought
paradoxical even in the case of being justly treated, if it were always
voluntary; for some are unwillingly treated justly. (2) One might
raise this question also, whether every one who has suffered what
is unjust is being unjustly treated, or on the other hand it is with
suffering as with acting. In action and in passivity alike it is possible
to partake of justice incidentally, and similarly (it is plain) of
injustice; for to do what is unjust is not the same as to act unjustly,
nor to suffer what is unjust as to be treated unjustly, and similarly
in the case of acting justly and being justly treated; for it is impossible
to be unjustly treated if the other does not act unjustly, or justly
treated unless he acts justly. Now if to act unjustly is simply to
harm some one voluntarily, and ‘voluntarily’ means ‘knowing the person
acted on, the instrument, and the manner of one’s acting’, and the
incontinent man voluntarily harms himself, not only will he voluntarily
be unjustly treated but it will be possible to treat oneself unjustly.
(This also is one of the questions in doubt, whether a man can treat
himself unjustly.) Again, a man may voluntarily, owing to incontinence,
be harmed by another who acts voluntarily, so that it would be possible
to be voluntarily treated unjustly. Or is our definition incorrect;
must we to ‘harming another, with knowledge both of the person acted
on, of the instrument, and of the manner’ add ‘contrary to the wish
of the person acted on’? Then a man may be voluntarily harmed and
voluntarily suffer what is unjust, but no one is voluntarily treated
unjustly; for no one wishes to be unjustly treated, not even the incontinent
man. He acts contrary to his wish; for no one wishes for what he does
not think to be good, but the incontinent man does do things that
he does not think he ought to do. Again, one who gives what is his
own, as Homer says Glaucus gave Diomede

Armour of gold for brazen, the price of a hundred beeves for nine,
is not unjustly treated; for though to give is in his power, to be
unjustly treated is not, but there must be some one to treat him unjustly.
It is plain, then, that being unjustly treated is not voluntary.

Of the questions we intended to discuss two still remain for discussion;
(3) whether it is the man who has assigned to another more than his
share that acts unjustly, or he who has the excessive share, and (4)
whether it is possible to treat oneself unjustly. The questions are
connected; for if the former alternative is possible and the distributor
acts unjustly and not the man who has the excessive share, then if
a man assigns more to another than to himself, knowingly and voluntarily,
he treats himself unjustly; which is what modest people seem to do,
since the virtuous man tends to take less than his share. Or does
this statement too need qualification? For (a) he perhaps gets more
than his share of some other good, e.g. of honour or of intrinsic
nobility. (b) The question is solved by applying the distinction we
applied to unjust action; for he suffers nothing contrary to his own
wish, so that he is not unjustly treated as far as this goes, but
at most only suffers harm.

It is plain too that the distributor acts unjustly, but not always
the man who has the excessive share; for it is not he to whom what
is unjust appertains that acts unjustly, but he to whom it appertains
to do the unjust act voluntarily, i.e. the person in whom lies the
origin of the action, and this lies in the distributor, not in the
receiver. Again, since the word ‘do’ is ambiguous, and there is a
sense in which lifeless things, or a hand, or a servant who obeys
an order, may be said to slay, he who gets an excessive share does
not act unjustly, though he ‘does’ what is unjust.

Again, if the distributor gave his judgement in ignorance, he does
not act unjustly in respect of legal justice, and his judgement is
not unjust in this sense, but in a sense it is unjust (for legal justice
and primordial justice are different); but if with knowledge he judged
unjustly, he is himself aiming at an excessive share either of gratitude
or of revenge. As much, then, as if he were to share in the plunder,
the man who has judged unjustly for these reasons has got too much;
the fact that what he gets is different from what he distributes makes
no difference, for even if he awards land with a view to sharing in
the plunder he gets not land but money.

Men think that acting unjustly is in their power, and therefore that
being just is easy. But it is not; to lie with one’s neighbour’s wife,
to wound another, to deliver a bribe, is easy and in our power, but
to do these things as a result of a certain state of character is
neither easy nor in our power. Similarly to know what is just and
what is unjust requires, men think, no great wisdom, because it is
not hard to understand the matters dealt with by the laws (though
these are not the things that are just, except incidentally); but
how actions must be done and distributions effected in order to be
just, to know this is a greater achievement than knowing what is good
for the health; though even there, while it is easy to know that honey,
wine, hellebore, cautery, and the use of the knife are so, to know
how, to whom, and when these should be applied with a view to producing
health, is no less an achievement than that of being a physician.
Again, for this very reason men think that acting unjustly is characteristic
of the just man no less than of the unjust, because he would be not
less but even more capable of doing each of these unjust acts; for
he could lie with a woman or wound a neighbour; and the brave man
could throw away his shield and turn to flight in this direction or
in that. But to play the coward or to act unjustly consists not in
doing these things, except incidentally, but in doing them as the
result of a certain state of character, just as to practise medicine
and healing consists not in applying or not applying the knife, in
using or not using medicines, but in doing so in a certain way.

Just acts occur between people who participate in things good in themselves
and can have too much or too little of them; for some beings (e.g.
presumably the gods) cannot have too much of them, and to others,
those who are incurably bad, not even the smallest share in them is
beneficial but all such goods are harmful, while to others they are
beneficial up to a point; therefore justice is essentially something
human.

10
Our next subject is equity and the equitable (to epiekes), and their
respective relations to justice and the just. For on examination they
appear to be neither absolutely the same nor generically different;
and while we sometime praise what is equitable and the equitable man
(so that we apply the name by way of praise even to instances of the
other virtues, instead of ‘good’ meaning by epieikestebon that a thing
is better), at other times, when we reason it out, it seems strange
if the equitable, being something different from the just, is yet
praiseworthy; for either the just or the equitable is not good, if
they are different; or, if both are good, they are the same.

These, then, are pretty much the considerations that give rise to
the problem about the equitable; they are all in a sense correct and
not opposed to one another; for the equitable, though it is better
than one kind of justice, yet is just, and it is not as being a different
class of thing that it is better than the just. The same thing, then,
is just and equitable, and while both are good the equitable is superior.
What creates the problem is that the equitable is just, but not the
legally just but a correction of legal justice. The reason is that
all law is universal but about some things it is not possible to make
a universal statement which shall be correct. In those cases, then,
in which it is necessary to speak universally, but not possible to
do so correctly, the law takes the usual case, though it is not ignorant
of the possibility of error. And it is none the less correct; for
the error is in the law nor in the legislator but in the nature of
the thing, since the matter of practical affairs is of this kind from
the start. When the law speaks universally, then, and a case arises
on it which is not covered by the universal statement, then it is
right, where the legislator fails us and has erred by oversimplicity,
to correct the omission-to say what the legislator himself would have
said had he been present, and would have put into his law if he had
known. Hence the equitable is just, and better than one kind of justice-not
better than absolute justice but better than the error that arises
from the absoluteness of the statement. And this is the nature of
the equitable, a correction of law where it is defective owing to
its universality. In fact this is the reason why all things are not
determined by law, that about some things it is impossible to lay
down a law, so that a decree is needed. For when the thing is indefinite
the rule also is indefinite, like the leaden rule used in making the
Lesbian moulding; the rule adapts itself to the shape of the stone
and is not rigid, and so too the decree is adapted to the facts.

It is plain, then, what the equitable is, and that it is just and
is better than one kind of justice. It is evident also from this who
the equitable man is; the man who chooses and does such acts, and
is no stickler for his rights in a bad sense but tends to take less
than his share though he has the law oft his side, is equitable, and
this state of character is equity, which is a sort of justice and
not a different state of character.

11

Whether a man can treat himself unjustly or not, is evident from what
has been said. For (a) one class of just acts are those acts in accordance
with any virtue which are prescribed by the law; e.g. the law does
not expressly permit suicide, and what it does not expressly permit
it forbids. Again, when a man in violation of the law harms another
(otherwise than in retaliation) voluntarily, he acts unjustly, and
a voluntary agent is one who knows both the person he is affecting
by his action and the instrument he is using; and he who through anger
voluntarily stabs himself does this contrary to the right rule of
life, and this the law does not allow; therefore he is acting unjustly.
But towards whom? Surely towards the state, not towards himself. For
he suffers voluntarily, but no one is voluntarily treated unjustly.
This is also the reason why the state punishes; a certain loss of
civil rights attaches to the man who destroys himself, on the ground
that he is treating the state unjustly.

Further (b) in that sense of ‘acting unjustly’ in which the man who
‘acts unjustly’ is unjust only and not bad all round, it is not possible
to treat oneself unjustly (this is different from the former sense;
the unjust man in one sense of the term is wicked in a particularized
way just as the coward is, not in the sense of being wicked all round,
so that his ‘unjust act’ does not manifest wickedness in general).
For (i) that would imply the possibility of the same thing’s having
been subtracted from and added to the same thing at the same time;
but this is impossible-the just and the unjust always involve more
than one person. Further, (ii) unjust action is voluntary and done
by choice, and takes the initiative (for the man who because he has
suffered does the same in return is not thought to act unjustly);
but if a man harms himself he suffers and does the same things at
the same time. Further, (iii) if a man could treat himself unjustly,
he could be voluntarily treated unjustly. Besides, (iv) no one acts
unjustly without committing particular acts of injustice; but no one
can commit adultery with his own wife or housebreaking on his own
house or theft on his own property,

In general, the question ‘can a man treat himself unjustly?’ is solved
also by the distinction we applied to the question ‘can a man be voluntarily
treated unjustly?’

(It is evident too that both are bad, being unjustly treated and acting
unjustly; for the one means having less and the other having more
than the intermediate amount, which plays the part here that the healthy
does in the medical art, and that good condition does in the art of
bodily training. But still acting unjustly is the worse, for it involves
vice and is blameworthy-involves vice which is either of the complete
and unqualified kind or almost so (we must admit the latter alternative,
because not all voluntary unjust action implies injustice as a state
of character), while being unjustly treated does not involve vice
and injustice in oneself. In itself, then, being unjustly treated
is less bad, but there is nothing to prevent its being incidentally
a greater evil. But theory cares nothing for this; it calls pleurisy
a more serious mischief than a stumble; yet the latter may become
incidentally the more serious, if the fall due to it leads to your
being taken prisoner or put to death the enemy.)

Metaphorically and in virtue of a certain resemblance there is a justice,
not indeed between a man and himself, but between certain parts of
him; yet not every kind of justice but that of master and servant
or that of husband and wife. For these are the ratios in which the
part of the soul that has a rational principle stands to the irrational
part; and it is with a view to these parts that people also think
a man can be unjust to himself, viz. because these parts are liable
to suffer something contrary to their respective desires; there is
therefore thought to be a mutual justice between them as between ruler
and ruled.

Let this be taken as our account of justice and the other, i.e. the
other moral, virtues.

Book VI Wisdom: Sophia (contemplative or scientific) and phronesis (calculative and moral)

BOOK VI

1

Since we have previously said that one ought to choose that which
is intermediate, not the excess nor the defect, and that the intermediate
is determined by the dictates of the right rule, let us discuss the
nature of these dictates. In all the states of character we have mentioned,
as in all other matters, there is a mark to which the man who has
the rule looks, and heightens or relaxes his activity accordingly,
and there is a standard which determines the mean states which we
say are intermediate between excess and defect, being in accordance
with the right rule. But such a statement, though true, is by no means
clear; for not only here but in all other pursuits which are objects
of knowledge it is indeed true to say that we must not exert ourselves
nor relax our efforts too much nor too little, but to an intermediate
extent and as the right rule dictates; but if a man had only this
knowledge he would be none the wiser e.g. we should not know what
sort of medicines to apply to our body if some one were to say ‘all
those which the medical art prescribes, and which agree with the practice
of one who possesses the art’. Hence it is necessary with regard to
the states of the soul also not only that this true statement should
be made, but also that it should be determined what is the right rule
and what is the standard that fixes it.

We divided the virtues of the soul and a said that some are virtues
of character and others of intellect. Now we have discussed in detail
the moral virtues; with regard to the others let us express our view
as follows, beginning with some remarks about the soul. We said before
that there are two parts of the soul-that which grasps a rule or rational
principle, and the irrational; let us now draw a similar distinction
within the part which grasps a rational principle. And let it be assumed
that there are two parts which grasp a rational principle-one by which
we contemplate the kind of things whose originative causes are invariable,
and one by which we contemplate variable things; for where objects
differ in kind the part of the soul answering to each of the two is
different in kind, since it is in virtue of a certain likeness and
kinship with their objects that they have the knowledge they have.
Let one of these parts be called the scientific and the other the
calculative; for to deliberate and to calculate are the same thing,
but no one deliberates about the invariable. Therefore the calculative
is one part of the faculty which grasps a rational principle. We must,
then, learn what is the best state of each of these two parts; for
this is the virtue of each.

2

The virtue of a thing is relative to its proper work. Now there are
three things in the soul which control action and truth-sensation,
reason, desire.

Of these sensation originates no action; this is plain from the fact
that the lower animals have sensation but no share in action.

What affirmation and negation are in thinking, pursuit and avoidance
are in desire; so that since moral virtue is a state of character
concerned with choice, and choice is deliberate desire, therefore
both the reasoning must be true and the desire right, if the choice
is to be good, and the latter must pursue just what the former asserts.
Now this kind of intellect and of truth is practical; of the intellect
which is contemplative, not practical nor productive, the good and
the bad state are truth and falsity respectively (for this is the
work of everything intellectual); while of the part which is practical
and intellectual the good state is truth in agreement with right desire.

The origin of action-its efficient, not its final cause-is choice,
and that of choice is desire and reasoning with a view to an end.
This is why choice cannot exist either without reason and intellect
or without a moral state; for good action and its opposite cannot
exist without a combination of intellect and character. Intellect
itself, however, moves nothing, but only the intellect which aims
at an end and is practical; for this rules the productive intellect,
as well, since every one who makes makes for an end, and that which
is made is not an end in the unqualified sense (but only an end in
a particular relation, and the end of a particular operation)-only
that which is done is that; for good action is an end, and desire
aims at this. Hence choice is either desiderative reason or ratiocinative
desire, and such an origin of action is a man. (It is to be noted
that nothing that is past is an object of choice, e.g. no one chooses
to have sacked Troy; for no one deliberates about the past, but about
what is future and capable of being otherwise, while what is past
is not capable of not having taken place; hence Agathon is right in
saying

For this alone is lacking even to God,
To make undone things thathave once been done.)

The work of both the intellectual parts, then, is truth. Therefore
the states that are most strictly those in respect of which each of
these parts will reach truth are the virtues of the two parts.

3

Let us begin, then, from the beginning, and discuss these states once
more. Let it be assumed that the states by virtue of which the soul
possesses truth by way of affirmation or denial are five in number,
i.e. art, scientific knowledge, practical wisdom, philosophic wisdom,
intuitive reason; we do not include judgement and opinion because
in these we may be mistaken.

Now what scientific knowledge is, if we are to speak exactly and not
follow mere similarities, is plain from what follows. We all suppose
that what we know is not even capable of being otherwise; of things
capable of being otherwise we do not know, when they have passed outside
our observation, whether they exist or not. Therefore the object of
scientific knowledge is of necessity. Therefore it is eternal; for
things that are of necessity in the unqualified sense are all eternal;
and things that are eternal are ungenerated and imperishable. Again,
every science is thought to be capable of being taught, and its object
of being learned. And all teaching starts from what is already known,
as we maintain in the Analytics also; for it proceeds sometimes through
induction and sometimes by syllogism. Now induction is the starting-point
which knowledge even of the universal presupposes, while syllogism
proceeds from universals. There are therefore starting-points from
which syllogism proceeds, which are not reached by syllogism; it is
therefore by induction that they are acquired. Scientific knowledge
is, then, a state of capacity to demonstrate, and has the other limiting
characteristics which we specify in the Analytics, for it is when
a man believes in a certain way and the starting-points are known
to him that he has scientific knowledge, since if they are not better
known to him than the conclusion, he will have his knowledge only
incidentally.

Let this, then, be taken as our account of scientific knowledge.

4

In the variable are included both things made and things done; making
and acting are different (for their nature we treat even the discussions
outside our school as reliable); so that the reasoned state of capacity
to act is different from the reasoned state of capacity to make. Hence
too they are not included one in the other; for neither is acting
making nor is making acting. Now since architecture is an art and
is essentially a reasoned state of capacity to make, and there is
neither any art that is not such a state nor any such state that is
not an art, art is identical with a state of capacity to make, involving
a true course of reasoning. All art is concerned with coming into
being, i.e. with contriving and considering how something may come
into being which is capable of either being or not being, and whose
origin is in the maker and not in the thing made; for art is concerned
neither with things that are, or come into being, by necessity, nor
with things that do so in accordance with nature (since these have
their origin in themselves). Making and acting being different, art
must be a matter of making, not of acting. And in a sense chance and
art are concerned with the same objects; as Agathon says, ‘art loves
chance and chance loves art’. Art, then, as has been is a state concerned
with making, involving a true course of reasoning, and lack of art
on the contrary is a state concerned with making, involving a false
course of reasoning; both are concerned with the variable.

5

Regarding practical wisdom we shall get at the truth by considering
who are the persons we credit with it. Now it is thought to be the
mark of a man of practical wisdom to be able to deliberate well about
what is good and expedient for himself, not in some particular respect,
e.g. about what sorts of thing conduce to health or to strength, but
about what sorts of thing conduce to the good life in general. This
is shown by the fact that we credit men with practical wisdom in some
particular respect when they have calculated well with a view to some
good end which is one of those that are not the object of any art.
It follows that in the general sense also the man who is capable of
deliberating has practical wisdom. Now no one deliberates about things
that are invariable, nor about things that it is impossible for him
to do. Therefore, since scientific knowledge involves demonstration,
but there is no demonstration of things whose first principles are
variable (for all such things might actually be otherwise), and since
it is impossible to deliberate about things that are of necessity,
practical wisdom cannot be scientific knowledge nor art; not science
because that which can be done is capable of being otherwise, not
art because action and making are different kinds of thing. The remaining
alternative, then, is that it is a true and reasoned state of capacity
to act with regard to the things that are good or bad for man. For
while making has an end other than itself, action cannot; for good
action itself is its end. It is for this reason that we think Pericles
and men like him have practical wisdom, viz. because they can see
what is good for themselves and what is good for men in general; we
consider that those can do this who are good at managing households
or states. (This is why we call temperance (sophrosune) by this name;
we imply that it preserves one’s practical wisdom (sozousa tan phronsin).
Now what it preserves is a judgement of the kind we have described.
For it is not any and every judgement that pleasant and painful objects
destroy and pervert, e.g. the judgement that the triangle has or has
not its angles equal to two right angles, but only judgements about
what is to be done. For the originating causes of the things that
are done consist in the end at which they are aimed; but the man who
has been ruined by pleasure or pain forthwith fails to see any such
originating cause-to see that for the sake of this or because of this
he ought to choose and do whatever he chooses and does; for vice is
destructive of the originating cause of action.) Practical wisdom,
then, must be a reasoned and true state of capacity to act with regard
to human goods. But further, while there is such a thing as excellence
in art, there is no such thing as excellence in practical wisdom;
and in art he who errs willingly is preferable, but in practical wisdom,
as in the virtues, he is the reverse. Plainly, then, practical wisdom
is a virtue and not an art. There being two parts of the soul that
can follow a course of reasoning, it must be the virtue of one of
the two, i.e. of that part which forms opinions; for opinion is about
the variable and so is practical wisdom. But yet it is not only a
reasoned state; this is shown by the fact that a state of that sort
may forgotten but practical wisdom cannot.

6

Scientific knowledge is judgement about things that are universal
and necessary, and the conclusions of demonstration, and all scientific
knowledge, follow from first principles (for scientific knowledge
involves apprehension of a rational ground). This being so, the first
principle from which what is scientifically known follows cannot be
an object of scientific knowledge, of art, or of practical wisdom;
for that which can be scientifically known can be demonstrated, and
art and practical wisdom deal with things that are variable. Nor are
these first principles the objects of philosophic wisdom, for it is
a mark of the philosopher to have demonstration about some things.
If, then, the states of mind by which we have truth and are never
deceived about things invariable or even variable are scientific knowlededge,
practical wisdom, philosophic wisdom, and intuitive reason, and it
cannot be any of the three (i.e. practical wisdom, scientific knowledge,
or philosophic wisdom), the remaining alternative is that it is intuitive
reason that grasps the first principles.

7

Wisdom (1) in the arts we ascribe to their most finished exponents,
e.g. to Phidias as a sculptor and to Polyclitus as a maker of portrait-statues,
and here we mean nothing by wisdom except excellence in art; but (2)
we think that some people are wise in general, not in some particular
field or in any other limited respect, as Homer says in the Margites,

Him did the gods make neither a digger nor yet a ploughman

Nor wise in anything else. Therefore wisdom must plainly be the most
finished of the forms of knowledge. It follows that the wise man must
not only know what follows from the first principles, but must also
possess truth about the first principles. Therefore wisdom must be
intuitive reason combined with scientific knowledge-scientific knowledge
of the highest objects which has received as it were its proper completion.

Of the highest objects, we say; for it would be strange to think that
the art of politics, or practical wisdom, is the best knowledge, since
man is not the best thing in the world. Now if what is healthy or
good is different for men and for fishes, but what is white or straight
is always the same, any one would say that what is wise is the same
but what is practically wise is different; for it is to that which
observes well the various matters concerning itself that one ascribes
practical wisdom, and it is to this that one will entrust such matters.
This is why we say that some even of the lower animals have practical
wisdom, viz. those which are found to have a power of foresight with
regard to their own life. It is evident also that philosophic wisdom
and the art of politics cannot be the same; for if the state of mind
concerned with a man’s own interests is to be called philosophic wisdom,
there will be many philosophic wisdoms; there will not be one concerned
with the good of all animals (any more than there is one art of medicine
for all existing things), but a different philosophic wisdom about
the good of each species.

But if the argument be that man is the best of the animals, this makes
no difference; for there are other things much more divine in their
nature even than man, e.g., most conspicuously, the bodies of which
the heavens are framed. From what has been said it is plain, then,
that philosophic wisdom is scientific knowledge, combined with intuitive
reason, of the things that are highest by nature. This is why we say
Anaxagoras, Thales, and men like them have philosophic but not practical
wisdom, when we see them ignorant of what is to their own advantage,
and why we say that they know things that are remarkable, admirable,
difficult, and divine, but useless; viz. because it is not human goods
that they seek.

Practical wisdom on the other hand is concerned with things human
and things about which it is possible to deliberate; for we say this
is above all the work of the man of practical wisdom, to deliberate
well, but no one deliberates about things invariable, nor about things
which have not an end, and that a good that can be brought about by
action. The man who is without qualification good at deliberating
is the man who is capable of aiming in accordance with calculation
at the best for man of things attainable by action. Nor is practical
wisdom concerned with universals only-it must also recognize the particulars;
for it is practical, and practice is concerned with particulars. This
is why some who do not know, and especially those who have experience,
are more practical than others who know; for if a man knew that light
meats are digestible and wholesome, but did not know which sorts of
meat are light, he would not produce health, but the man who knows
that chicken is wholesome is more likely to produce health.

Now practical wisdom is concerned with action; therefore one should
have both forms of it, or the latter in preference to the former.
But of practical as of philosophic wisdom there must be a controlling
kind.

8

Political wisdom and practical wisdom are the same state of mind,
but their essence is not the same. Of the wisdom concerned with the
city, the practical wisdom which plays a controlling part is legislative
wisdom, while that which is related to this as particulars to their
universal is known by the general name ‘political wisdom’; this has
to do with action and deliberation, for a decree is a thing to be
carried out in the form of an individual act. This is why the exponents
of this art are alone said to ‘take part in politics’; for these alone
‘do things’ as manual labourers ‘do things’.

Practical wisdom also is identified especially with that form of it
which is concerned with a man himself-with the individual; and this
is known by the general name ‘practical wisdom’; of the other kinds
one is called household management, another legislation, the third
politics, and of the latter one part is called deliberative and the
other judicial. Now knowing what is good for oneself will be one kind
of knowledge, but it is very different from the other kinds; and the
man who knows and concerns himself with his own interests is thought
to have practical wisdom, while politicians are thought to be busybodies;
hence the word of Euripides,

But how could I be wise, who might at ease,
Numbered among the army’s multitude,
Have had an equal share?
For those who aim too high and do too much. Those who think thus seek
their own good, and consider that one ought to do so. From this opinion,
then, has come the view that such men have practical wisdom; yet perhaps
one’s own good cannot exist without household management, nor without
a form of government. Further, how one should order one’s own affairs
is not clear and needs inquiry.

What has been said is confirmed by the fact that while young men become
geometricians and mathematicians and wise in matters like these, it
is thought that a young man of practical wisdom cannot be found. The
cause is that such wisdom is concerned not only with universals but
with particulars, which become familiar from experience, but a young
man has no experience, for it is length of time that gives experience;
indeed one might ask this question too, why a boy may become a mathematician,
but not a philosopher or a physicist. It is because the objects of
mathematics exist by abstraction, while the first principles of these
other subjects come from experience, and because young men have no
conviction about the latter but merely use the proper language, while
the essence of mathematical objects is plain enough to them?

Further, error in deliberation may be either about the universal or
about the particular; we may fall to know either that all water that
weighs heavy is bad, or that this particular water weighs heavy.

That practical wisdom is not scientific knowledge is evident; for
it is, as has been said, concerned with the ultimate particular fact,
since the thing to be done is of this nature. It is opposed, then,
to intuitive reason; for intuitive reason is of the limiting premisses,
for which no reason can be given, while practical wisdom is concerned
with the ultimate particular, which is the object not of scientific
knowledge but of perception-not the perception of qualities peculiar
to one sense but a perception akin to that by which we perceive that
the particular figure before us is a triangle; for in that direction
as well as in that of the major premiss there will be a limit. But
this is rather perception than practical wisdom, though it is another
kind of perception than that of the qualities peculiar to each sense.

9

There is a difference between inquiry and deliberation; for deliberation
is inquiry into a particular kind of thing. We must grasp the nature
of excellence in deliberation as well whether it is a form of scientific
knowledge, or opinion, or skill in conjecture, or some other kind
of thing. Scientific knowledge it is not; for men do not inquire about
the things they know about, but good deliberation is a kind of deliberation,
and he who deliberates inquires and calculates. Nor is it skill in
conjecture; for this both involves no reasoning and is something that
is quick in its operation, while men deliberate a long time, and they
say that one should carry out quickly the conclusions of one’s deliberation,
but should deliberate slowly. Again, readiness of mind is different
from excellence in deliberation; it is a sort of skill in conjecture.
Nor again is excellence in deliberation opinion of any sort. But since
the man who deliberates badly makes a mistake, while he who deliberates
well does so correctly, excellence in deliberation is clearly a kind
of correctness, but neither of knowledge nor of opinion; for there
is no such thing as correctness of knowledge (since there is no such
thing as error of knowledge), and correctness of opinion is truth;
and at the same time everything that is an object of opinion is already
determined. But again excellence in deliberation involves reasoning.
The remaining alternative, then, is that it is correctness of thinking;
for this is not yet assertion, since, while even opinion is not inquiry
but has reached the stage of assertion, the man who is deliberating,
whether he does so well or ill, is searching for something and calculating.

But excellence in deliberation is a certain correctness of deliberation;
hence we must first inquire what deliberation is and what it is about.
And, there being more than one kind of correctness, plainly excellence
in deliberation is not any and every kind; for (1) the incontinent
man and the bad man, if he is clever, will reach as a result of his
calculation what he sets before himself, so that he will have deliberated
correctly, but he will have got for himself a great evil. Now to have
deliberated well is thought to be a good thing; for it is this kind
of correctness of deliberation that is excellence in deliberation,
viz. that which tends to attain what is good. But (2) it is possible
to attain even good by a false syllogism, and to attain what one ought
to do but not by the right means, the middle term being false; so
that this too is not yet excellence in deliberation this state in
virtue of which one attains what one ought but not by the right means.
Again (3) it is possible to attain it by long deliberation while another
man attains it quickly. Therefore in the former case we have not yet
got excellence in deliberation, which is rightness with regard to
the expedient-rightness in respect both of the end, the manner, and
the time. (4) Further it is possible to have deliberated well either
in the unqualified sense or with reference to a particular end. Excellence
in deliberation in the unqualified sense, then, is that which succeeds
with reference to what is the end in the unqualified sense, and excellence
in deliberation in a particular sense is that which succeeds relatively
to a particular end. If, then, it is characteristic of men of practical
wisdom to have deliberated well, excellence in deliberation will be
correctness with regard to what conduces to the end of which practical
wisdom is the true apprehension.

10

Understanding, also, and goodness of understanding, in virtue of which
men are said to be men of understanding or of good understanding,
are neither entirely the same as opinion or scientific knowledge (for
at that rate all men would have been men of understanding), nor are
they one of the particular sciences, such as medicine, the science
of things connected with health, or geometry, the science of spatial
magnitudes. For understanding is neither about things that are always
and are unchangeable, nor about any and every one of the things that
come into being, but about things which may become subjects of questioning
and deliberation. Hence it is about the same objects as practical
wisdom; but understanding and practical wisdom are not the same. For
practical wisdom issues commands, since its end is what ought to be
done or not to be done; but understanding only judges. (Understanding
is identical with goodness of understanding, men of understanding
with men of good understanding.) Now understanding is neither the
having nor the acquiring of practical wisdom; but as learning is called
understanding when it means the exercise of the faculty of knowledge,
so ‘understanding’ is applicable to the exercise of the faculty of
opinion for the purpose of judging of what some one else says about
matters with which practical wisdom is concerned-and of judging soundly;
for ‘well’ and ‘soundly’ are the same thing. And from this has come
the use of the name ‘understanding’ in virtue of which men are said
to be ‘of good understanding’, viz. from the application of the word
to the grasping of scientific truth; for we often call such grasping
understanding.

11

What is called judgement, in virtue of which men are said to ‘be sympathetic
judges’ and to ‘have judgement’, is the right discrimination of the
equitable. This is shown by the fact that we say the equitable man
is above all others a man of sympathetic judgement, and identify equity
with sympathetic judgement about certain facts. And sympathetic judgement
is judgement which discriminates what is equitable and does so correctly;
and correct judgement is that which judges what is true.

Now all the states we have considered converge, as might be expected,
to the same point; for when we speak of judgement and understanding
and practical wisdom and intuitive reason we credit the same people
with possessing judgement and having reached years of reason and with
having practical wisdom and understanding. For all these faculties
deal with ultimates, i.e. with particulars; and being a man of understanding
and of good or sympathetic judgement consists in being able judge
about the things with which practical wisdom is concerned; for the
equities are common to all good men in relation to other men. Now
all things which have to be done are included among particulars or
ultimates; for not only must the man of practical wisdom know particular
facts, but understanding and judgement are also concerned with things
to be done, and these are ultimates. And intuitive reason is concerned
with the ultimates in both directions; for both the first terms and
the last are objects of intuitive reason and not of argument, and
the intuitive reason which is presupposed by demonstrations grasps
the unchangeable and first terms, while the intuitive reason involved
in practical reasonings grasps the last and variable fact, i.e. the
minor premiss. For these variable facts are the starting-points for
the apprehension of the end, since the universals are reached from
the particulars; of these therefore we must have perception, and this
perception is intuitive reason.

This is why these states are thought to be natural endowments-why,
while no one is thought to be a philosopher by nature, people are
thought to have by nature judgement, understanding, and intuitive
reason. This is shown by the fact that we think our powers correspond
to our time of life, and that a particular age brings with it intuitive
reason and judgement; this implies that nature is the cause. (Hence
intuitive reason is both beginning and end; for demonstrations are
from these and about these.) Therefore we ought to attend to the undemonstrated
sayings and opinions of experienced and older people or of people
of practical wisdom not less than to demonstrations; for because experience
has given them an eye they see aright.

We have stated, then, what practical and philosophic wisdom are, and
with what each of them is concerned, and we have said that each is
the virtue of a different part of the soul.

12

Difficulties might be raised as to the utility of these qualities
of mind. For (1) philosophic wisdom will contemplate none of the things
that will make a man happy (for it is not concerned with any coming
into being), and though practical wisdom has this merit, for what
purpose do we need it? Practical wisdom is the quality of mind concerned
with things just and noble and good for man, but these are the things
which it is the mark of a good man to do, and we are none the more
able to act for knowing them if the virtues are states of character,
just as we are none the better able to act for knowing the things
that are healthy and sound, in the sense not of producing but of issuing
from the state of health; for we are none the more able to act for
having the art of medicine or of gymnastics. But (2) if we are to
say that a man should have practical wisdom not for the sake of knowing
moral truths but for the sake of becoming good, practical wisdom will
be of no use to those who are good; again it is of no use to those
who have not virtue; for it will make no difference whether they have
practical wisdom themselves or obey others who have it, and it would
be enough for us to do what we do in the case of health; though we
wish to become healthy, yet we do not learn the art of medicine. (3)
Besides this, it would be thought strange if practical wisdom, being
inferior to philosophic wisdom, is to be put in authority over it,
as seems to be implied by the fact that the art which produces anything
rules and issues commands about that thing.

These, then, are the questions we must discuss; so far we have only
stated the difficulties.

(1) Now first let us say that in themselves these states must be worthy
of choice because they are the virtues of the two parts of the soul
respectively, even if neither of them produce anything.

(2) Secondly, they do produce something, not as the art of medicine
produces health, however, but as health produces health; so does philosophic
wisdom produce happiness; for, being a part of virtue entire, by being
possessed and by actualizing itself it makes a man happy.

(3) Again, the work of man is achieved only in accordance with practical
wisdom as well as with moral virtue; for virtue makes us aim at the
right mark, and practical wisdom makes us take the right means. (Of
the fourth part of the soul-the nutritive-there is no such virtue;
for there is nothing which it is in its power to do or not to do., 4) With regard to our being none the more able to do because of our
practical wisdom what is noble and just, let us begin a little further
back, starting with the following principle. As we say that some people
who do just acts are not necessarily just, i.e. those who do the acts
ordained by the laws either unwillingly or owing to ignorance or for
some other reason and not for the sake of the acts themselves (though,
to be sure, they do what they should and all the things that the good
man ought), so is it, it seems, that in order to be good one must
be in a certain state when one does the several acts, i.e. one must
do them as a result of choice and for the sake of the acts themselves.
Now virtue makes the choice right, but the question of the things
which should naturally be done to carry out our choice belongs not
to virtue but to another faculty. We must devote our attention to
these matters and give a clearer statement about them. There is a
faculty which is called cleverness; and this is such as to be able
to do the things that tend towards the mark we have set before ourselves,
and to hit it. Now if the mark be noble, the cleverness is laudable,
but if the mark be bad, the cleverness is mere smartness; hence we
call even men of practical wisdom clever or smart. Practical wisdom
is not the faculty, but it does not exist without this faculty. And
this eye of the soul acquires its formed state not without the aid
of virtue, as has been said and is plain; for the syllogisms which
deal with acts to be done are things which involve a starting-point,
viz. ‘since the end, i.e. what is best, is of such and such a nature’,
whatever it may be (let it for the sake of argument be what we please);
and this is not evident except to the good man; for wickedness perverts
us and causes us to be deceived about the starting-points of action.
Therefore it is evident that it is impossible to be practically wise
without being good.

13

We must therefore consider virtue also once more; for virtue too is
similarly related; as practical wisdom is to cleverness-not the same,
but like it-so is natural virtue to virtue in the strict sense. For
all men think that each type of character belongs to its possessors
in some sense by nature; for from the very moment of birth we are
just or fitted for selfcontrol or brave or have the other moral qualities;
but yet we seek something else as that which is good in the strict
sense-we seek for the presence of such qualities in another way. For
both children and brutes have the natural dispositions to these qualities,
but without reason these are evidently hurtful. Only we seem to see
this much, that, while one may be led astray by them, as a strong
body which moves without sight may stumble badly because of its lack
of sight, still, if a man once acquires reason, that makes a difference
in action; and his state, while still like what it was, will then
be virtue in the strict sense. Therefore, as in the part of us which
forms opinions there are two types, cleverness and practical wisdom,
so too in the moral part there are two types, natural virtue and virtue
in the strict sense, and of these the latter involves practical wisdom.
This is why some say that all the virtues are forms of practical wisdom,
and why Socrates in one respect was on the right track while in another
he went astray; in thinking that all the virtues were forms of practical
wisdom he was wrong, but in saying they implied practical wisdom he
was right. This is confirmed by the fact that even now all men, when
they define virtue, after naming the state of character and its objects
add ‘that (state) which is in accordance with the right rule’; now
the right rule is that which is in accordance with practical wisdom.
All men, then, seem somehow to divine that this kind of state is virtue,
viz. that which is in accordance with practical wisdom. But we must
go a little further. For it is not merely the state in accordance
with the right rule, but the state that implies the presence of the
right rule, that is virtue; and practical wisdom is a right rule about
such matters. Socrates, then, thought the virtues were rules or rational
principles (for he thought they were, all of them, forms of scientific
knowledge), while we think they involve a rational principle.

It is clear, then, from what has been said, that it is not possible
to be good in the strict sense without practical wisdom, nor practically
wise without moral virtue. But in this way we may also refute the
dialectical argument whereby it might be contended that the virtues
exist in separation from each other; the same man, it might be said,
is not best equipped by nature for all the virtues, so that he will
have already acquired one when he has not yet acquired another. This
is possible in respect of the natural virtues, but not in respect
of those in respect of which a man is called without qualification
good; for with the presence of the one quality, practical wisdom,
will be given all the virtues. And it is plain that, even if it were
of no practical value, we should have needed it because it is the
virtue of the part of us in question; plain too that the choice will
not be right without practical wisdom any more than without virtue;
for the one deter, mines the end and the other makes us do the things
that lead to the end.

But again it is not supreme over philosophic wisdom, i.e. over the
superior part of us, any more than the art of medicine is over health;
for it does not use it but provides for its coming into being; it
issues orders, then, for its sake, but not to it. Further, to maintain
its supremacy would be like saying that the art of politics rules
the gods because it issues orders about all the affairs of the state.

Book VII Practical wisdom, ends and virtues

BOOK VII

1

Let us now make a fresh beginning and point out that of moral states
to be avoided there are three kinds-vice, incontinence, brutishness.
The contraries of two of these are evident,-one we call virtue, the
other continence; to brutishness it would be most fitting to oppose
superhuman virtue, a heroic and divine kind of virtue, as Homer has
represented Priam saying of Hector that he was very good,

For he seemed not, he,
The child of a mortal man, but as one that of God’s seed came.

Therefore if, as they say, men become gods by excess of virtue, of
this kind must evidently be the state opposed to the brutish state;
for as a brute has no vice or virtue, so neither has a god; his state
is higher than virtue, and that of a brute is a different kind of
state from vice.

Now, since it is rarely that a godlike man is found-to use the epithet
of the Spartans, who when they admire any one highly call him a ‘godlike
man’-so too the brutish type is rarely found among men; it is found
chiefly among barbarians, but some brutish qualities are also produced
by disease or deformity; and we also call by this evil name those
men who go beyond all ordinary standards by reason of vice. Of this
kind of disposition, however, we must later make some mention, while
we have discussed vice before we must now discuss incontinence and
softness (or effeminacy), and continence and endurance; for we must
treat each of the two neither as identical with virtue or wickedness,
nor as a different genus. We must, as in all other cases, set the
observed facts before us and, after first discussing the difficulties,
go on to prove, if possible, the truth of all the common opinions
about these affections of the mind, or, failing this, of the greater
number and the most authoritative; for if we both refute the objections
and leave the common opinions undisturbed, we shall have proved the
case sufficiently.

Now (1) both continence and endurance are thought to be included among
things good and praiseworthy, and both incontinence and soft, ness
among things bad and blameworthy; and the same man is thought to be
continent and ready to abide by the result of his calculations, or
incontinent and ready to abandon them. And (2) the incontinent man,
knowing that what he does is bad, does it as a result of passion,
while the continent man, knowing that his appetites are bad, refuses
on account of his rational principle to follow them (3) The temperate
man all men call continent and disposed to endurance, while the continent
man some maintain to be always temperate but others do not; and some
call the self-indulgent man incontinent and the incontinent man selfindulgent
indiscriminately, while others distinguish them. (4) The man of practical
wisdom, they sometimes say, cannot be incontinent, while sometimes
they say that some who are practically wise and clever are incontinent.
Again (5) men are said to be incontinent even with respect to anger,
honour, and gain.-These, then, are the things that are said.

2

Now we may ask (1) how a man who judges rightly can behave incontinently.
That he should behave so when he has knowledge, some say is impossible;
for it would be strange-so Socrates thought-if when knowledge was
in a man something else could master it and drag it about like a slave.
For Socrates was entirely opposed to the view in question, holding
that there is no such thing as incontinence; no one, he said, when
he judges acts against what he judges best-people act so only by reason
of ignorance. Now this view plainly contradicts the observed facts,
and we must inquire about what happens to such a man; if he acts by
reason of ignorance, what is the manner of his ignorance? For that
the man who behaves incontinently does not, before he gets into this
state, think he ought to act so, is evident. But there are some who
concede certain of Socrates’ contentions but not others; that nothing
is stronger than knowledge they admit, but not that on one acts contrary
to what has seemed to him the better course, and therefore they say
that the incontinent man has not knowledge when he is mastered by
his pleasures, but opinion. But if it is opinion and not knowledge,
if it is not a strong conviction that resists but a weak one, as in
men who hesitate, we sympathize with their failure to stand by such
convictions against strong appetites; but we do not sympathize with
wickedness, nor with any of the other blameworthy states. Is it then
practical wisdom whose resistance is mastered? That is the strongest
of all states. But this is absurd; the same man will be at once practically
wise and incontinent, but no one would say that it is the part of
a practically wise man to do willingly the basest acts. Besides, it
has been shown before that the man of practical wisdom is one who
will act (for he is a man concerned with the individual facts) and
who has the other virtues.

(2) Further, if continence involves having strong and bad appetites,
the temperate man will not be continent nor the continent man temperate;
for a temperate man will have neither excessive nor bad appetites.
But the continent man must; for if the appetites are good, the state
of character that restrains us from following them is bad, so that
not all continence will be good; while if they are weak and not bad,
there is nothing admirable in resisting them, and if they are weak
and bad, there is nothing great in resisting these either.

(3) Further, if continence makes a man ready to stand by any and every
opinion, it is bad, i.e. if it makes him stand even by a false opinion;
and if incontinence makes a man apt to abandon any and every opinion,
there will be a good incontinence, of which Sophocles’ Neoptolemus
in the Philoctetes will be an instance; for he is to be praised for
not standing by what Odysseus persuaded him to do, because he is pained
at telling a lie.

(4) Further, the sophistic argument presents a difficulty; the syllogism
arising from men’s wish to expose paradoxical results arising from
an opponent’s view, in order that they may be admired when they succeed,
is one that puts us in a difficulty (for thought is bound fast when
it will not rest because the conclusion does not satisfy it, and cannot
advance because it cannot refute the argument). There is an argument
from which it follows that folly coupled with incontinence is virtue;
for a man does the opposite of what he judges, owing to incontinence,
but judges what is good to be evil and something that he should not
do, and consequence he will do what is good and not what is evil.

(5) Further, he who on conviction does and pursues and chooses what
is pleasant would be thought to be better than one who does so as
a result not of calculation but of incontinence; for he is easier
to cure since he may be persuaded to change his mind. But to the incontinent
man may be applied the proverb ‘when water chokes, what is one to
wash it down with?’ If he had been persuaded of the rightness of what
he does, he would have desisted when he was persuaded to change his
mind; but now he acts in spite of his being persuaded of something
quite different.

(6) Further, if incontinence and continence are concerned with any
and every kind of object, who is it that is incontinent in the unqualified
sense? No one has all the forms of incontinence, but we say some people
are incontinent without qualification.

3

Of some such kind are the difficulties that arise; some of these points
must be refuted and the others left in possession of the field; for
the solution of the difficulty is the discovery of the truth. (1)
We must consider first, then, whether incontinent people act knowingly
or not, and in what sense knowingly; then (2) with what sorts of object
the incontinent and the continent man may be said to be concerned
(i.e. whether with any and every pleasure and pain or with certain
determinate kinds), and whether the continent man and the man of endurance
are the same or different; and similarly with regard to the other
matters germane to this inquiry. The starting-point of our investigation
is (a) the question whether the continent man and the incontinent
are differentiated by their objects or by their attitude, i.e. whether
the incontinent man is incontinent simply by being concerned with
such and such objects, or, instead, by his attitude, or, instead of
that, by both these things; (b) the second question is whether incontinence
and continence are concerned with any and every object or not. The
man who is incontinent in the unqualified sense is neither concerned
with any and every object, but with precisely those with which the
self-indulgent man is concerned, nor is he characterized by being
simply related to these (for then his state would be the same as self-indulgence),
but by being related to them in a certain way. For the one is led
on in accordance with his own choice, thinking that he ought always
to pursue the present pleasure; while the other does not think so,
but yet pursues it.

(1) As for the suggestion that it is true opinion and not knowledge
against which we act incontinently, that makes no difference to the
argument; for some people when in a state of opinion do not hesitate,
but think they know exactly. If, then, the notion is that owing to
their weak conviction those who have opinion are more likely to act
against their judgement than those who know, we answer that there
need be no difference between knowledge and opinion in this respect;
for some men are no less convinced of what they think than others
of what they know; as is shown by the of Heraclitus. But (a), since
we use the word ‘know’ in two senses (for both the man who has knowledge
but is not using it and he who is using it are said to know), it will
make a difference whether, when a man does what he should not, he
has the knowledge but is not exercising it, or is exercising it; for
the latter seems strange, but not the former.

(b) Further, since there are two kinds of premisses, there is nothing
to prevent a man’s having both premisses and acting against his knowledge,
provided that he is using only the universal premiss and not the particular;
for it is particular acts that have to be done. And there are also
two kinds of universal term; one is predicable of the agent, the other
of the object; e.g. ‘dry food is good for every man’, and ‘I am a
man’, or ‘such and such food is dry’; but whether ‘this food is such
and such’, of this the incontinent man either has not or is not exercising
the knowledge. There will, then, be, firstly, an enormous difference
between these manners of knowing, so that to know in one way when
we act incontinently would not seem anything strange, while to know
in the other way would be extraordinary.

And further (c) the possession of knowledge in another sense than
those just named is something that happens to men; for within the
case of having knowledge but not using it we see a difference of state,
admitting of the possibility of having knowledge in a sense and yet
not having it, as in the instance of a man asleep, mad, or drunk.
But now this is just the condition of men under the influence of passions;
for outbursts of anger and sexual appetites and some other such passions,
it is evident, actually alter our bodily condition, and in some men
even produce fits of madness. It is plain, then, that incontinent
people must be said to be in a similar condition to men asleep, mad,
or drunk. The fact that men use the language that flows from knowledge
proves nothing; for even men under the influence of these passions
utter scientific proofs and verses of Empedocles, and those who have
just begun to learn a science can string together its phrases, but
do not yet know it; for it has to become part of themselves, and that
takes time; so that we must suppose that the use of language by men
in an incontinent state means no more than its utterance by actors
on the stage. (d) Again, we may also view the cause as follows with
reference to the facts of human nature. The one opinion is universal,
the other is concerned with the particular facts, and here we come
to something within the sphere of perception; when a single opinion
results from the two, the soul must in one type of case affirm the
conclusion, while in the case of opinions concerned with production
it must immediately act (e.g. if ‘everything sweet ought to be tasted’,
and ‘this is sweet’, in the sense of being one of the particular sweet
things, the man who can act and is not prevented must at the same
time actually act accordingly). When, then, the universal opinion
is present in us forbidding us to taste, and there is also the opinion
that ‘everything sweet is pleasant’, and that ‘this is sweet’ (now
this is the opinion that is active), and when appetite happens to
be present in us, the one opinion bids us avoid the object, but appetite
leads us towards it (for it can move each of our bodily parts); so
that it turns out that a man behaves incontinently under the influence
(in a sense) of a rule and an opinion, and of one not contrary in
itself, but only incidentally-for the appetite is contrary, not the
opinion-to the right rule. It also follows that this is the reason
why the lower animals are not incontinent, viz. because they have
no universal judgement but only imagination and memory of particulars.

The explanation of how the ignorance is dissolved and the incontinent
man regains his knowledge, is the same as in the case of the man drunk
or asleep and is not peculiar to this condition; we must go to the
students of natural science for it. Now, the last premiss both being
an opinion about a perceptible object, and being what determines our
actions this a man either has not when he is in the state of passion,
or has it in the sense in which having knowledge did not mean knowing
but only talking, as a drunken man may utter the verses of Empedocles.
And because the last term is not universal nor equally an object of
scientific knowledge with the universal term, the position that Socrates
sought to establish actually seems to result; for it is not in the
presence of what is thought to be knowledge proper that the affection
of incontinence arises (nor is it this that is ‘dragged about’ as
a result of the state of passion), but in that of perceptual knowledge.

This must suffice as our answer to the question of action with and
without knowledge, and how it is possible to behave incontinently
with knowledge.

4

(2) We must next discuss whether there is any one who is incontinent
without qualification, or all men who are incontinent are so in a
particular sense, and if there is, with what sort of objects he is
concerned. That both continent persons and persons of endurance, and
incontinent and soft persons, are concerned with pleasures and pains,
is evident.

Now of the things that produce pleasure some are necessary, while
others are worthy of choice in themselves but admit of excess, the
bodily causes of pleasure being necessary (by such I mean both those
concerned with food and those concerned with sexual intercourse, i.e.
the bodily matters with which we defined self-indulgence and temperance
as being concerned), while the others are not necessary but worthy
of choice in themselves (e.g. victory, honour, wealth, and good and
pleasant things of this sort). This being so, (a) those who go to
excess with reference to the latter, contrary to the right rule which
is in themselves, are not called incontinent simply, but incontinent
with the qualification ‘in respect of money, gain, honour, or anger’,-not
simply incontinent, on the ground that they are different from incontinent
people and are called incontinent by reason of a resemblance. (Compare
the case of Anthropos (Man), who won a contest at the Olympic games;
in his case the general definition of man differed little from the
definition peculiar to him, but yet it was different.) This is shown
by the fact that incontinence either without qualification or in respect
of some particular bodily pleasure is blamed not only as a fault but
as a kind of vice, while none of the people who are incontinent in
these other respects is so blamed.

But (b) of the people who are incontinent with respect to bodily enjoyments,
with which we say the temperate and the self-indulgent man are concerned,
he who pursues the excesses of things pleasant-and shuns those of
things painful, of hunger and thirst and heat and cold and all the
objects of touch and taste-not by choice but contrary to his choice
and his judgement, is called incontinent, not with the qualification
‘in respect of this or that’, e.g. of anger, but just simply. This
is confirmed by the fact that men are called ‘soft’ with regard to
these pleasures, but not with regard to any of the others. And for
this reason we group together the incontinent and the self-indulgent,
the continent and the temperate man-but not any of these other types-because
they are concerned somehow with the same pleasures and pains; but
though these are concerned with the same objects, they are not similarly
related to them, but some of them make a deliberate choice while the
others do not.

This is why we should describe as self-indulgent rather the man who
without appetite or with but a slight appetite pursues the excesses
of pleasure and avoids moderate pains, than the man who does so because
of his strong appetites; for what would the former do, if he had in
addition a vigorous appetite, and a violent pain at the lack of the
‘necessary’ objects?

Now of appetites and pleasures some belong to the class of things
generically noble and good-for some pleasant things are by nature
worthy of choice, while others are contrary to these, and others are
intermediate, to adopt our previous distinction-e.g. wealth, gain,
victory, honour. And with reference to all objects whether of this
or of the intermediate kind men are not blamed for being affected
by them, for desiring and loving them, but for doing so in a certain
way, i.e. for going to excess. (This is why all those who contrary
to the rule either are mastered by or pursue one of the objects which
are naturally noble and good, e.g. those who busy themselves more
than they ought about honour or about children and parents, (are not
wicked); for these too are good, and those who busy themselves about
them are praised; but yet there is an excess even in them-if like
Niobe one were to fight even against the gods, or were to be as much
devoted to one’s father as Satyrus nicknamed ‘the filial’, who was
thought to be very silly on this point.) There is no wickedness, then,
with regard to these objects, for the reason named, viz. because each
of them is by nature a thing worthy of choice for its own sake; yet
excesses in respect of them are bad and to be avoided. Similarly there
is no incontinence with regard to them; for incontinence is not only
to be avoided but is also a thing worthy of blame; but owing to a
similarity in the state of feeling people apply the name incontinence,
adding in each case what it is in respect of, as we may describe as
a bad doctor or a bad actor one whom we should not call bad, simply.
As, then, in this case we do not apply the term without qualification
because each of these conditions is no shadness but only analogous
to it, so it is clear that in the other case also that alone must
be taken to be incontinence and continence which is concerned with
the same objects as temperance and self-indulgence, but we apply the
term to anger by virtue of a resemblance; and this is why we say with
a qualification ‘incontinent in respect of anger’ as we say ‘incontinent
in respect of honour, or of gain’.

5

(1) Some things are pleasant by nature, and of these (a) some are
so without qualification, and (b) others are so with reference to
particular classes either of animals or of men; while (2) others are
not pleasant by nature, but (a) some of them become so by reason of
injuries to the system, and (b) others by reason of acquired habits,
and (c) others by reason of originally bad natures. This being so,
it is possible with regard to each of the latter kinds to discover
similar states of character to those recognized with regard to the
former; I mean (A) the brutish states, as in the case of the female
who, they say, rips open pregnant women and devours the infants, or
of the things in which some of the tribes about the Black Sea that
have gone savage are said to delight-in raw meat or in human flesh,
or in lending their children to one another to feast upon-or of the
story told of Phalaris.

These states are brutish, but (B) others arise as a result of disease
(or, in some cases, of madness, as with the man who sacrificed and
ate his mother, or with the slave who ate the liver of his fellow),
and others are morbid states (C) resulting from custom, e.g. the habit
of plucking out the hair or of gnawing the nails, or even coals or
earth, and in addition to these paederasty; for these arise in some
by nature and in others, as in those who have been the victims of
lust from childhood, from habit.

Now those in whom nature is the cause of such a state no one would
call incontinent, any more than one would apply the epithet to women
because of the passive part they play in copulation; nor would one
apply it to those who are in a morbid condition as a result of habit.
To have these various types of habit is beyond the limits of vice,
as brutishness is too; for a man who has them to master or be mastered
by them is not simple (continence or) incontinence but that which
is so by analogy, as the man who is in this condition in respect of
fits of anger is to be called incontinent in respect of that feeling
but not incontinent simply. For every excessive state whether of folly,
of cowardice, of self-indulgence, or of bad temper, is either brutish
or morbid; the man who is by nature apt to fear everything, even the
squeak of a mouse, is cowardly with a brutish cowardice, while the
man who feared a weasel did so in consequence of disease; and of foolish
people those who by nature are thoughtless and live by their senses
alone are brutish, like some races of the distant barbarians, while
those who are so as a result of disease (e.g. of epilepsy) or of madness
are morbid. Of these characteristics it is possible to have some only
at times, and not to be mastered by them. e.g. Phalaris may have restrained
a desire to eat the flesh of a child or an appetite for unnatural
sexual pleasure; but it is also possible to be mastered, not merely
to have the feelings. Thus, as the wickedness which is on the human
level is called wickedness simply, while that which is not is called
wickedness not simply but with the qualification ‘brutish’ or ‘morbid’,
in the same way it is plain that some incontinence is brutish and
some morbid, while only that which corresponds to human self-indulgence
is incontinence simply.

That incontinence and continence, then, are concerned only with the
same objects as selfindulgence and temperance and that what is concerned
with other objects is a type distinct from incontinence, and called
incontinence by a metaphor and not simply, is plain.

6

That incontinence in respect of anger is less disgraceful than that
in respect of the appetites is what we will now proceed to see. (1)
Anger seems to listen to argument to some extent, but to mishear it,
as do hasty servants who run out before they have heard the whole
of what one says, and then muddle the order, or as dogs bark if there
is but a knock at the door, before looking to see if it is a friend;
so anger by reason of the warmth and hastiness of its nature, though
it hears, does not hear an order, and springs to take revenge. For
argument or imagination informs us that we have been insulted or slighted,
and anger, reasoning as it were that anything like this must be fought
against, boils up straightway; while appetite, if argument or perception
merely says that an object is pleasant, springs to the enjoyment of
it. Therefore anger obeys the argument in a sense, but appetite does
not. It is therefore more disgraceful; for the man who is incontinent
in respect of anger is in a sense conquered by argument, while the
other is conquered by appetite and not by argument.

(2) Further, we pardon people more easily for following natural desires,
since we pardon them more easily for following such appetites as are
common to all men, and in so far as they are common; now anger and
bad temper are more natural than the appetites for excess, i.e. for
unnecessary objects. Take for instance the man who defended himself
on the charge of striking his father by saying ‘yes, but he struck
his father, and he struck his, and’ (pointing to his child) ‘this
boy will strike me when he is a man; it runs in the family’; or the
man who when he was being dragged along by his son bade him stop at
the doorway, since he himself had dragged his father only as far as
that.

(2) Further, those who are more given to plotting against others are
more criminal. Now a passionate man is not given to plotting, nor
is anger itself-it is open; but the nature of appetite is illustrated
by what the poets call Aphrodite, ‘guile-weaving daughter of Cyprus’,
and by Homer’s words about her ’embroidered girdle’:

And the whisper of wooing is there,
Whose subtlety stealeth the wits of the wise, how prudent soe’er.
Therefore if this form of incontinence is more criminal and disgraceful
than that in respect of anger, it is both incontinence without qualification
and in a sense vice.

(4) Further, no one commits wanton outrage with a feeling of pain,
but every one who acts in anger acts with pain, while the man who
commits outrage acts with pleasure. If, then, those acts at which
it is most just to be angry are more criminal than others, the incontinence
which is due to appetite is the more criminal; for there is no wanton
outrage involved in anger.

Plainly, then, the incontinence concerned with appetite is more disgraceful
than that concerned with anger, and continence and incontinence are
concerned with bodily appetites and pleasures; but we must grasp the
differences among the latter themselves. For, as has been said at
the beginning, some are human and natural both in kind and in magnitude,
others are brutish, and others are due to organic injuries and diseases.
Only with the first of these are temperance and self-indulgence concerned;
this is why we call the lower animals neither temperate nor self-indulgent
except by a metaphor, and only if some one race of animals exceeds
another as a whole in wantonness, destructiveness, and omnivorous
greed; these have no power of choice or calculation, but they are
departures from the natural norm, as, among men, madmen are. Now brutishness
is a less evil than vice, though more alarming; for it is not that
the better part has been perverted, as in man,-they have no better
part. Thus it is like comparing a lifeless thing with a living in
respect of badness; for the badness of that which has no originative
source of movement is always less hurtful, and reason is an originative
source. Thus it is like comparing injustice in the abstract with an
unjust man. Each is in some sense worse; for a bad man will do ten
thousand times as much evil as a brute.

7

With regard to the pleasures and pains and appetites and aversions
arising through touch and taste, to which both self-indulgence and
temperance were formerly narrowed down, it possible to be in such
a state as to be defeated even by those of them which most people
master, or to master even those by which most people are defeated;
among these possibilities, those relating to pleasures are incontinence
and continence, those relating to pains softness and endurance. The
state of most people is intermediate, even if they lean more towards
the worse states.

Now, since some pleasures are necessary while others are not, and
are necessary up to a point while the excesses of them are not, nor
the deficiencies, and this is equally true of appetites and pains,
the man who pursues the excesses of things pleasant, or pursues to
excess necessary objects, and does so by choice, for their own sake
and not at all for the sake of any result distinct from them, is self-indulgent;
for such a man is of necessity unlikely to repent, and therefore incurable,
since a man who cannot repent cannot be cured. The man who is deficient
in his pursuit of them is the opposite of self-indulgent; the man
who is intermediate is temperate. Similarly, there is the man who
avoids bodily pains not because he is defeated by them but by choice.
(Of those who do not choose such acts, one kind of man is led to them
as a result of the pleasure involved, another because he avoids the
pain arising from the appetite, so that these types differ from one
another. Now any one would think worse of a man with no appetite or
with weak appetite were he to do something disgraceful, than if he
did it under the influence of powerful appetite, and worse of him
if he struck a blow not in anger than if he did it in anger; for what
would he have done if he had been strongly affected? This is why the
self-indulgent man is worse than the incontinent.) of the states named,
then, the latter is rather a kind of softness; the former is self-indulgence.
While to the incontinent man is opposed the continent, to the soft
is opposed the man of endurance; for endurance consists in resisting,
while continence consists in conquering, and resisting and conquering
are different, as not being beaten is different from winning; this
is why continence is also more worthy of choice than endurance. Now
the man who is defective in respect of resistance to the things which
most men both resist and resist successfully is soft and effeminate;
for effeminacy too is a kind of softness; such a man trails his cloak
to avoid the pain of lifting it, and plays the invalid without thinking
himself wretched, though the man he imitates is a wretched man.

The case is similar with regard to continence and incontinence. For
if a man is defeated by violent and excessive pleasures or pains,
there is nothing wonderful in that; indeed we are ready to pardon
him if he has resisted, as Theodectes’ Philoctetes does when bitten
by the snake, or Carcinus’ Cercyon in the Alope, and as people who
try to restrain their laughter burst out into a guffaw, as happened
to Xenophantus. But it is surprising if a man is defeated by and cannot
resist pleasures or pains which most men can hold out against, when
this is not due to heredity or disease, like the softness that is
hereditary with the kings of the Scythians, or that which distinguishes
the female sex from the male.

The lover of amusement, too, is thought to be self-indulgent, but
is really soft. For amusement is a relaxation, since it is a rest
from work; and the lover of amusement is one of the people who go
to excess in this.

Of incontinence one kind is impetuosity, another weakness. For some
men after deliberating fail, owing to their emotion, to stand by the
conclusions of their deliberation, others because they have not deliberated
are led by their emotion; since some men (just as people who first
tickle others are not tickled themselves), if they have first perceived
and seen what is coming and have first roused themselves and their
calculative faculty, are not defeated by their emotion, whether it
be pleasant or painful. It is keen and excitable people that suffer
especially from the impetuous form of incontinence; for the former
by reason of their quickness and the latter by reason of the violence
of their passions do not await the argument, because they are apt
to follow their imagination.

8

The self-indulgent man, as was said, is not apt to repent; for he
stands by his choice; but incontinent man is likely to repent. This
is why the position is not as it was expressed in the formulation
of the problem, but the selfindulgent man is incurable and the incontinent
man curable; for wickedness is like a disease such as dropsy or consumption,
while incontinence is like epilepsy; the former is a permanent, the
latter an intermittent badness. And generally incontinence and vice
are different in kind; vice is unconscious of itself, incontinence
is not (of incontinent men themselves, those who become temporarily
beside themselves are better than those who have the rational principle
but do not abide by it, since the latter are defeated by a weaker
passion, and do not act without previous deliberation like the others);
for the incontinent man is like the people who get drunk quickly and
on little wine, i.e. on less than most people.

Evidently, then, incontinence is not vice (though perhaps it is so
in a qualified sense); for incontinence is contrary to choice while
vice is in accordance with choice; not but what they are similar in
respect of the actions they lead to; as in the saying of Demodocus
about the Milesians, ‘the Milesians are not without sense, but they
do the things that senseless people do’, so too incontinent people
are not criminal, but they will do criminal acts.

Now, since the incontinent man is apt to pursue, not on conviction,
bodily pleasures that are excessive and contrary to the right rule,
while the self-indulgent man is convinced because he is the sort of
man to pursue them, it is on the contrary the former that is easily
persuaded to change his mind, while the latter is not. For virtue
and vice respectively preserve and destroy the first principle, and
in actions the final cause is the first principle, as the hypotheses
are in mathematics; neither in that case is it argument that teaches
the first principles, nor is it so here-virtue either natural or produced
by habituation is what teaches right opinion about the first principle.
Such a man as this, then, is temperate; his contrary is the self-indulgent.

But there is a sort of man who is carried away as a result of passion
and contrary to the right rule-a man whom passion masters so that
he does not act according to the right rule, but does not master to
the extent of making him ready to believe that he ought to pursue
such pleasures without reserve; this is the incontinent man, who is
better than the self-indulgent man, and not bad without qualification;
for the best thing in him, the first principle, is preserved. And
contrary to him is another kind of man, he who abides by his convictions
and is not carried away, at least as a result of passion. It is evident
from these considerations that the latter is a good state and the
former a bad one.

9

Is the man continent who abides by any and every rule and any and
every choice, or the man who abides by the right choice, and is he
incontinent who abandons any and every choice and any and every rule,
or he who abandons the rule that is not false and the choice that
is right; this is how we put it before in our statement of the problem.
Or is it incidentally any and every choice but per se the true rule
and the right choice by which the one abides and the other does not?
If any one chooses or pursues this for the sake of that, per se he
pursues and chooses the latter, but incidentally the former. But when
we speak without qualification we mean what is per se. Therefore in
a sense the one abides by, and the other abandons, any and every opinion;
but without qualification, the true opinion.

There are some who are apt to abide by their opinion, who are called
strong-headed, viz. those who are hard to persuade in the first instance
and are not easily persuaded to change; these have in them something
like the continent man, as the prodigal is in a way like the liberal
man and the rash man like the confident man; but they are different
in many respects. For it is to passion and appetite that the one will
not yield, since on occasion the continent man will be easy to persuade;
but it is to argument that the others refuse to yield, for they do
form appetites and many of them are led by their pleasures. Now the
people who are strong-headed are the opinionated, the ignorant, and
the boorish-the opinionated being influenced by pleasure and pain;
for they delight in the victory they gain if they are not persuaded
to change, and are pained if their decisions become null and void
as decrees sometimes do; so that they are liker the incontinent than
the continent man.

But there are some who fail to abide by their resolutions, not as
a result of incontinence, e.g. Neoptolemus in Sophocles’ Philoctetes;
yet it was for the sake of pleasure that he did not stand fast-but
a noble pleasure; for telling the truth was noble to him, but he had
been persuaded by Odysseus to tell the lie. For not every one who
does anything for the sake of pleasure is either self-indulgent or
bad or incontinent, but he who does it for a disgraceful pleasure.

Since there is also a sort of man who takes less delight than he should
in bodily things, and does not abide by the rule, he who is intermediate
between him and the incontinent man is the continent man; for the
incontinent man fails to abide by the rule because he delights too
much in them, and this man because he delights in them too little;
while the continent man abides by the rule and does not change on
either account. Now if continence is good, both the contrary states
must be bad, as they actually appear to be; but because the other
extreme is seen in few people and seldom, as temperance is thought
to be contrary only to self-indulgence, so is continence to incontinence.

Since many names are applied analogically, it is by analogy that we
have come to speak of the ‘continence’ the temperate man; for both
the continent man and the temperate man are such as to do nothing
contrary to the rule for the sake of the bodily pleasures, but the
former has and the latter has not bad appetites, and the latter is
such as not to feel pleasure contrary to the rule, while the former
is such as to feel pleasure but not to be led by it. And the incontinent
and the self-indulgent man are also like another; they are different,
but both pursue bodily pleasures- the latter, however, also thinking
that he ought to do so, while the former does not think this.

10

Nor can the same man have practical wisdom and be incontinent; for
it has been shown’ that a man is at the same time practically wise,
and good in respect of character. Further, a man has practical wisdom
not by knowing only but by being able to act; but the incontinent
man is unable to act-there is, however, nothing to prevent a clever
man from being incontinent; this is why it is sometimes actually thought
that some people have practical wisdom but are incontinent, viz. because
cleverness and practical wisdom differ in the way we have described
in our first discussions, and are near together in respect of their
reasoning, but differ in respect of their purpose-nor yet is the incontinent
man like the man who knows and is contemplating a truth, but like
the man who is asleep or drunk. And he acts willingly (for he acts
in a sense with knowledge both of what he does and of the end to which
he does it), but is not wicked, since his purpose is good; so that
he is half-wicked. And he is not a criminal; for he does not act of
malice aforethought; of the two types of incontinent man the one does
not abide by the conclusions of his deliberation, while the excitable
man does not deliberate at all. And thus the incontinent man like
a city which passes all the right decrees and has good laws, but makes
no use of them, as in Anaxandrides’ jesting remark,

The city willed it, that cares nought for laws; but the wicked man
is like a city that uses its laws, but has wicked laws to use.

Now incontinence and continence are concerned with that which is in
excess of the state characteristic of most men; for the continent
man abides by his resolutions more and the incontinent man less than
most men can.

Of the forms of incontinence, that of excitable people is more curable
than that of those who deliberate but do not abide by their decisions,
and those who are incontinent through habituation are more curable
than those in whom incontinence is innate; for it is easier to change
a habit than to change one’s nature; even habit is hard to change
just because it is like nature, as Evenus says:

I say that habit’s but a long practice, friend,
And this becomes men’s nature in the end.

We have now stated what continence, incontinence, endurance, and softness
are, and how these states are related to each other.

11

The study of pleasure and pain belongs to the province of the political
philosopher; for he is the architect of the end, with a view to which
we call one thing bad and another good without qualification. Further,
it is one of our necessary tasks to consider them; for not only did
we lay it down that moral virtue and vice are concerned with pains
and pleasures, but most people say that happiness involves pleasure;
this is why the blessed man is called by a name derived from a word
meaning enjoyment.

Now (1) some people think that no pleasure is a good, either in itself
or incidentally, since the good and pleasure are not the same; (2)
others think that some pleasures are good but that most are bad. (3)
Again there is a third view, that even if all pleasures are good,
yet the best thing in the world cannot be pleasure. (1) The reasons
given for the view that pleasure is not a good at all are (a) that
every pleasure is a perceptible process to a natural state, and that
no process is of the same kind as its end, e.g. no process of building
of the same kind as a house. (b) A temperate man avoids pleasures.
(c) A man of practical wisdom pursues what is free from pain, not
what is pleasant. (d) The pleasures are a hindrance to thought, and
the more so the more one delights in them, e.g. in sexual pleasure;
for no one could think of anything while absorbed in this. (e) There
is no art of pleasure; but every good is the product of some art.
(f) Children and the brutes pursue pleasures. (2) The reasons for
the view that not all pleasures are good are that (a) there are pleasures
that are actually base and objects of reproach, and (b) there are
harmful pleasures; for some pleasant things are unhealthy. (3) The
reason for the view that the best thing in the world is not pleasure
is that pleasure is not an end but a process.

12

These are pretty much the things that are said. That it does not follow
from these grounds that pleasure is not a good, or even the chief
good, is plain from the following considerations. (A, a) First, since
that which is good may be so in either of two senses (one thing good
simply and another good for a particular person), natural constitutions
and states of being, and therefore also the corresponding movements
and processes, will be correspondingly divisible. Of those which are
thought to be bad some will be bad if taken without qualification
but not bad for a particular person, but worthy of his choice, and
some will not be worthy of choice even for a particular person, but
only at a particular time and for a short period, though not without
qualification; while others are not even pleasures, but seem to be
so, viz. all those which involve pain and whose end is curative, e.g.
the processes that go on in sick persons.

(b) Further, one kind of good being activity and another being state,
the processes that restore us to our natural state are only incidentally
pleasant; for that matter the activity at work in the appetites for
them is the activity of so much of our state and nature as has remained
unimpaired; for there are actually pleasures that involve no pain
or appetite (e.g. those of contemplation), the nature in such a case
not being defective at all. That the others are incidental is indicated
by the fact that men do not enjoy the same pleasant objects when their
nature is in its settled state as they do when it is being replenished,
but in the former case they enjoy the things that are pleasant without
qualification, in the latter the contraries of these as well; for
then they enjoy even sharp and bitter things, none of which is pleasant
either by nature or without qualification. The states they produce,
therefore, are not pleasures naturally or without qualification; for
as pleasant things differ, so do the pleasures arising from them.

(c) Again, it is not necessary that there should be something else
better than pleasure, as some say the end is better than the process;
for leasures are not processes nor do they all involve process-they
are activities and ends; nor do they arise when we are becoming something,
but when we are exercising some faculty; and not all pleasures have
an end different from themselves, but only the pleasures of persons
who are being led to the perfecting of their nature. This is why it
is not right to say that pleasure is perceptible process, but it should
rather be called activity of the natural state, and instead of ‘perceptible’
‘unimpeded’. It is thought by some people to be process just because
they think it is in the strict sense good; for they think that activity
is process, which it is not.

(B) The view that pleasures are bad because some pleasant things are
unhealthy is like saying that healthy things are bad because some
healthy things are bad for money-making; both are bad in the respect
mentioned, but they are not bad for that reason-indeed, thinking itself
is sometimes injurious to health.

Neither practical wisdom nor any state of being is impeded by the
pleasure arising from it; it is foreign pleasures that impede, for
the pleasures arising from thinking and learning will make us think
and learn all the more.

(C) The fact that no pleasure is the product of any art arises naturally
enough; there is no art of any other activity either, but only of
the corresponding faculty; though for that matter the arts of the
perfumer and the cook are thought to be arts of pleasure.

(D) The arguments based on the grounds that the temperate man avoids
pleasure and that the man of practical wisdom pursues the painless
life, and that children and the brutes pursue pleasure, are all refuted
by the same consideration. We have pointed out in what sense pleasures
are good without qualification and in what sense some are not good;
now both the brutes and children pursue pleasures of the latter kind
(and the man of practical wisdom pursues tranquil freedom from that
kind), viz. those which imply appetite and pain, i.e. the bodily pleasures
(for it is these that are of this nature) and the excesses of them,
in respect of which the self-indulgent man is self-indulent. This
is why the temperate man avoids these pleasures; for even he has pleasures
of his own.

13

But further (E) it is agreed that pain is bad and to be avoided; for
some pain is without qualification bad, and other pain is bad because
it is in some respect an impediment to us. Now the contrary of that
which is to be avoided, qua something to be avoided and bad, is good.
Pleasure, then, is necessarily a good. For the answer of Speusippus,
that pleasure is contrary both to pain and to good, as the greater
is contrary both to the less and to the equal, is not successful;
since he would not say that pleasure is essentially just a species
of evil.

And (F) if certain pleasures are bad, that does not prevent the chief
good from being some pleasure, just as the chief good may be some
form of knowledge though certain kinds of knowledge are bad. Perhaps
it is even necessary, if each disposition has unimpeded activities,
that, whether the activity (if unimpeded) of all our dispositions
or that of some one of them is happiness, this should be the thing
most worthy of our choice; and this activity is pleasure. Thus the
chief good would be some pleasure, though most pleasures might perhaps
be bad without qualification. And for this reason all men think that
the happy life is pleasant and weave pleasure into their ideal of
happiness-and reasonably too; for no activity is perfect when it is
impeded, and happiness is a perfect thing; this is why the happy man
needs the goods of the body and external goods, i.e. those of fortune,
viz. in order that he may not be impeded in these ways. Those who
say that the victim on the rack or the man who falls into great misfortunes
is happy if he is good, are, whether they mean to or not, talking
nonsense. Now because we need fortune as well as other things, some
people think good fortune the same thing as happiness; but it is not
that, for even good fortune itself when in excess is an impediment,
and perhaps should then be no longer called good fortune; for its
limit is fixed by reference to happiness.

And indeed the fact that all things, both brutes and men, pursue pleasure
is an indication of its being somehow the chief good:

No voice is wholly lost that many peoples… But since no one nature
or state either is or is thought the best for all, neither do all
pursue the same pleasure; yet all pursue pleasure. And perhaps they
actually pursue not the pleasure they think they pursue nor that which
they would say they pursue, but the same pleasure; for all things
have by nature something divine in them. But the bodily pleasures
have appropriated the name both because we oftenest steer our course
for them and because all men share in them; thus because they alone
are familiar, men think there are no others.

It is evident also that if pleasure, i.e. the activity of our faculties,
is not a good, it will not be the case that the happy man lives a
pleasant life; for to what end should he need pleasure, if it is not
a good but the happy man may even live a painful life? For pain is
neither an evil nor a good, if pleasure is not; why then should he
avoid it? Therefore, too, the life of the good man will not be pleasanter
than that of any one else, if his activities are not more pleasant.

14

(G) With regard to the bodily pleasures, those who say that some pleasures
are very much to be chosen, viz. the noble pleasures, but not the
bodily pleasures, i.e. those with which the self-indulgent man is
concerned, must consider why, then, the contrary pains are bad. For
the contrary of bad is good. Are the necessary pleasures good in the
sense in which even that which is not bad is good? Or are they good
up to a point? Is it that where you have states and processes of which
there cannot be too much, there cannot be too much of the corresponding
pleasure, and that where there can be too much of the one there can
be too much of the other also? Now there can be too much of bodily
goods, and the bad man is bad by virtue of pursuing the excess, not
by virtue of pursuing the necessary pleasures (for all men enjoy in
some way or other both dainty foods and wines and sexual intercourse,
but not all men do so as they ought). The contrary is the case with
pain; for he does not avoid the excess of it, he avoids it altogether;
and this is peculiar to him, for the alternative to excess of pleasure
is not pain, except to the man who pursues this excess.

Since we should state not only the truth, but also the cause of error-for
this contributes towards producing conviction, since when a reasonable
explanation is given of why the false view appears true, this tends
to produce belief in the true view-therefore we must state why the
bodily pleasures appear the more worthy of choice. (a) Firstly, then,
it is because they expel pain; owing to the excesses of pain that
men experience, they pursue excessive and in general bodily pleasure
as being a cure for the pain. Now curative agencies produce intense
feeling-which is the reason why they are pursued-because they show
up against the contrary pain. (Indeed pleasure is thought not to be
good for these two reasons, as has been said, viz. that (a) some of
them are activities belonging to a bad nature-either congenital, as
in the case of a brute, or due to habit, i.e. those of bad men; while
(b) others are meant to cure a defective nature, and it is better
to be in a healthy state than to be getting into it, but these arise
during the process of being made perfect and are therefore only incidentally
good., b) Further, they are pursued because of their violence by
those who cannot enjoy other pleasures. (At all events they go out
of their way to manufacture thirsts somehow for themselves. When these
are harmless, the practice is irreproachable; when they are hurtful,
it is bad.) For they have nothing else to enjoy, and, besides, a neutral
state is painful to many people because of their nature. For the animal
nature is always in travail, as the students of natural science also
testify, saying that sight and hearing are painful; but we have become
used to this, as they maintain. Similarly, while, in youth, people
are, owing to the growth that is going on, in a situation like that
of drunken men, and youth is pleasant, on the other hand people of
excitable nature always need relief; for even their body is ever in
torment owing to its special composition, and they are always under
the influence of violent desire; but pain is driven out both by the
contrary pleasure, and by any chance pleasure if it be strong; and
for these reasons they become self-indulgent and bad. But the pleasures
that do not involve pains do not admit of excess; and these are among
the things pleasant by nature and not incidentally. By things pleasant
incidentally I mean those that act as cures (for because as a result
people are cured, through some action of the part that remains healthy,
for this reason the process is thought pleasant); by things naturally
pleasant I mean those that stimulate the action of the healthy nature.

There is no one thing that is always pleasant, because our nature
is not simple but there is another element in us as well, inasmuch
as we are perishable creatures, so that if the one element does something,
this is unnatural to the other nature, and when the two elements are
evenly balanced, what is done seems neither painful nor pleasant;
for if the nature of anything were simple, the same action would always
be most pleasant to it. This is why God always enjoys a single and
simple pleasure; for there is not only an activity of movement but
an activity of immobility, and pleasure is found more in rest than
in movement. But ‘change in all things is sweet’, as the poet says,
because of some vice; for as it is the vicious man that is changeable,
so the nature that needs change is vicious; for it is not simple nor
good.

We have now discussed continence and incontinence, and pleasure and
pain, both what each is and in what sense some of them are good and
others bad; it remains to speak of friendship.

Book VIII Friendship as a personal and communal virtue

BOOK VIII

1

After what we have said, a discussion of friendship would naturally
follow, since it is a virtue or implies virtue, and is besides most
necessary with a view to living. For without friends no one would
choose to live, though he had all other goods; even rich men and those
in possession of office and of dominating power are thought to need
friends most of all; for what is the use of such prosperity without
the opportunity of beneficence, which is exercised chiefly and in
its most laudable form towards friends? Or how can prosperity be guarded
and preserved without friends? The greater it is, the more exposed
is it to risk. And in poverty and in other misfortunes men think friends
are the only refuge. It helps the young, too, to keep from error;
it aids older people by ministering to their needs and supplementing
the activities that are failing from weakness; those in the prime
of life it stimulates to noble actions-‘two going together’-for with
friends men are more able both to think and to act. Again, parent
seems by nature to feel it for offspring and offspring for parent,
not only among men but among birds and among most animals; it is felt
mutually by members of the same race, and especially by men, whence
we praise lovers of their fellowmen. We may even in our travels how
near and dear every man is to every other. Friendship seems too to
hold states together, and lawgivers to care more for it than for justice;
for unanimity seems to be something like friendship, and this they
aim at most of all, and expel faction as their worst enemy; and when
men are friends they have no need of justice, while when they are
just they need friendship as well, and the truest form of justice
is thought to be a friendly quality.

But it is not only necessary but also noble; for we praise those who
love their friends, and it is thought to be a fine thing to have many
friends; and again we think it is the same people that are good men
and are friends.

Not a few things about friendship are matters of debate. Some define
it as a kind of likeness and say like people are friends, whence come
the sayings ‘like to like’, ‘birds of a feather flock together’, and
so on; others on the contrary say ‘two of a trade never agree’. On
this very question they inquire for deeper and more physical causes,
Euripides saying that ‘parched earth loves the rain, and stately heaven
when filled with rain loves to fall to earth’, and Heraclitus that
‘it is what opposes that helps’ and ‘from different tones comes the
fairest tune’ and ‘all things are produced through strife’; while
Empedocles, as well as others, expresses the opposite view that like
aims at like. The physical problems we may leave alone (for they do
not belong to the present inquiry); let us examine those which are
human and involve character and feeling, e.g. whether friendship can
arise between any two people or people cannot be friends if they are
wicked, and whether there is one species of friendship or more than
one. Those who think there is only one because it admits of degrees
have relied on an inadequate indication; for even things different
in species admit of degree. We have discussed this matter previously.

2

The kinds of friendship may perhaps be cleared up if we first come
to know the object of love. For not everything seems to be loved but
only the lovable, and this is good, pleasant, or useful; but it would
seem to be that by which some good or pleasure is produced that is
useful, so that it is the good and the useful that are lovable as
ends. Do men love, then, the good, or what is good for them? These
sometimes clash. So too with regard to the pleasant. Now it is thought
that each loves what is good for himself, and that the good is without
qualification lovable, and what is good for each man is lovable for
him; but each man loves not what is good for him but what seems good.
This however will make no difference; we shall just have to say that
this is ‘that which seems lovable’. Now there are three grounds on
which people love; of the love of lifeless objects we do not use the
word ‘friendship’; for it is not mutual love, nor is there a wishing
of good to the other (for it would surely be ridiculous to wish wine
well; if one wishes anything for it, it is that it may keep, so that
one may have it oneself); but to a friend we say we ought to wish
what is good for his sake. But to those who thus wish good we ascribe
only goodwill, if the wish is not reciprocated; goodwill when it is
reciprocal being friendship. Or must we add ‘when it is recognized’?
For many people have goodwill to those whom they have not seen but
judge to be good or useful; and one of these might return this feeling.
These people seem to bear goodwill to each other; but how could one
call them friends when they do not know their mutual feelings? To
be friends, then, the must be mutually recognized as bearing goodwill
and wishing well to each other for one of the aforesaid reasons.

3

Now these reasons differ from each other in kind; so, therefore, do
the corresponding forms of love and friendship. There are therefore
three kinds of friendship, equal in number to the things that are
lovable; for with respect to each there is a mutual and recognized
love, and those who love each other wish well to each other in that
respect in which they love one another. Now those who love each other
for their utility do not love each other for themselves but in virtue
of some good which they get from each other. So too with those who
love for the sake of pleasure; it is not for their character that
men love ready-witted people, but because they find them pleasant.
Therefore those who love for the sake of utility love for the sake
of what is good for themselves, and those who love for the sake of
pleasure do so for the sake of what is pleasant to themselves, and
not in so far as the other is the person loved but in so far as he
is useful or pleasant. And thus these friendships are only incidental;
for it is not as being the man he is that the loved person is loved,
but as providing some good or pleasure. Such friendships, then, are
easily dissolved, if the parties do not remain like themselves; for
if the one party is no longer pleasant or useful the other ceases
to love him.

Now the useful is not permanent but is always changing. Thus when
the motive of the friendship is done away, the friendship is dissolved,
inasmuch as it existed only for the ends in question. This kind of
friendship seems to exist chiefly between old people (for at that
age people pursue not the pleasant but the useful) and, of those who
are in their prime or young, between those who pursue utility. And
such people do not live much with each other either; for sometimes
they do not even find each other pleasant; therefore they do not need
such companionship unless they are useful to each other; for they
are pleasant to each other only in so far as they rouse in each other
hopes of something good to come. Among such friendships people also
class the friendship of a host and guest. On the other hand the friendship
of young people seems to aim at pleasure; for they live under the
guidance of emotion, and pursue above all what is pleasant to themselves
and what is immediately before them; but with increasing age their
pleasures become different. This is why they quickly become friends
and quickly cease to be so; their friendship changes with the object
that is found pleasant, and such pleasure alters quickly. Young people
are amorous too; for the greater part of the friendship of love depends
on emotion and aims at pleasure; this is why they fall in love and
quickly fall out of love, changing often within a single day. But
these people do wish to spend their days and lives together; for it
is thus that they attain the purpose of their friendship.

Perfect friendship is the friendship of men who are good, and alike
in virtue; for these wish well alike to each other qua good, and they
are good themselves. Now those who wish well to their friends for
their sake are most truly friends; for they do this by reason of own
nature and not incidentally; therefore their friendship lasts as long
as they are good-and goodness is an enduring thing. And each is good
without qualification and to his friend, for the good are both good
without qualification and useful to each other. So too they are pleasant;
for the good are pleasant both without qualification and to each other,
since to each his own activities and others like them are pleasurable,
and the actions of the good are the same or like. And such a friendship
is as might be expected permanent, since there meet in it all the
qualities that friends should have. For all friendship is for the
sake of good or of pleasure-good or pleasure either in the abstract
or such as will be enjoyed by him who has the friendly feeling-and
is based on a certain resemblance; and to a friendship of good men
all the qualities we have named belong in virtue of the nature of
the friends themselves; for in the case of this kind of friendship
the other qualities also are alike in both friends, and that which
is good without qualification is also without qualification pleasant,
and these are the most lovable qualities. Love and friendship therefore
are found most and in their best form between such men.

But it is natural that such friendships should be infrequent; for
such men are rare. Further, such friendship requires time and familiarity;
as the proverb says, men cannot know each other till they have ‘eaten
salt together’; nor can they admit each other to friendship or be
friends till each has been found lovable and been trusted by each.
Those who quickly show the marks of friendship to each other wish
to be friends, but are not friends unless they both are lovable and
know the fact; for a wish for friendship may arise quickly, but friendship
does not.

4

This kind of friendship, then, is perfect both in respect of duration
and in all other respects, and in it each gets from each in all respects
the same as, or something like what, he gives; which is what ought
to happen between friends. Friendship for the sake of pleasure bears
a resemblance to this kind; for good people too are pleasant to each
other. So too does friendship for the sake of utility; for the good
are also useful to each other. Among men of these inferior sorts too,
friendships are most permanent when the friends get the same thing
from each other (e.g. pleasure), and not only that but also from the
same source, as happens between readywitted people, not as happens
between lover and beloved. For these do not take pleasure in the same
things, but the one in seeing the beloved and the other in receiving
attentions from his lover; and when the bloom of youth is passing
the friendship sometimes passes too (for the one finds no pleasure
in the sight of the other, and the other gets no attentions from the
first); but many lovers on the other hand are constant, if familiarity
has led them to love each other’s characters, these being alike. But
those who exchange not pleasure but utility in their amour are both
less truly friends and less constant. Those who are friends for the
sake of utility part when the advantage is at an end; for they were
lovers not of each other but of profit.

For the sake of pleasure or utility, then, even bad men may be friends
of each other, or good men of bad, or one who is neither good nor
bad may be a friend to any sort of person, but for their own sake
clearly only good men can be friends; for bad men do not delight in
each other unless some advantage come of the relation.

The friendship of the good too and this alone is proof against slander;
for it is not easy to trust any one talk about a man who has long
been tested by oneself; and it is among good men that trust and the
feeling that ‘he would never wrong me’ and all the other things that
are demanded in true friendship are found. In the other kinds of friendship,
however, there is nothing to prevent these evils arising. For men
apply the name of friends even to those whose motive is utility, in
which sense states are said to be friendly (for the alliances of states
seem to aim at advantage), and to those who love each other for the
sake of pleasure, in which sense children are called friends. Therefore
we too ought perhaps to call such people friends, and say that there
are several kinds of friendship-firstly and in the proper sense that
of good men qua good, and by analogy the other kinds; for it is in
virtue of something good and something akin to what is found in true
friendship that they are friends, since even the pleasant is good
for the lovers of pleasure. But these two kinds of friendship are
not often united, nor do the same people become friends for the sake
of utility and of pleasure; for things that are only incidentally
connected are not often coupled together.

Friendship being divided into these kinds, bad men will be friends
for the sake of pleasure or of utility, being in this respect like
each other, but good men will be friends for their own sake, i.e.
in virtue of their goodness. These, then, are friends without qualification;
the others are friends incidentally and through a resemblance to these.

5

As in regard to the virtues some men are called good in respect of
a state of character, others in respect of an activity, so too in
the case of friendship; for those who live together delight in each
other and confer benefits on each other, but those who are asleep
or locally separated are not performing, but are disposed to perform,
the activities of friendship; distance does not break off the friendship
absolutely, but only the activity of it. But if the absence is lasting,
it seems actually to make men forget their friendship; hence the saying
‘out of sight, out of mind’. Neither old people nor sour people seem
to make friends easily; for there is little that is pleasant in them,
and no one can spend his days with one whose company is painful, or
not pleasant, since nature seems above all to avoid the painful and
to aim at the pleasant. Those, however, who approve of each other
but do not live together seem to be well-disposed rather than actual
friends. For there is nothing so characteristic of friends as living
together (since while it people who are in need that desire benefits,
even those who are supremely happy desire to spend their days together;
for solitude suits such people least of all); but people cannot live
together if they are not pleasant and do not enjoy the same things,
as friends who are companions seem to do.

The truest friendship, then, is that of the good, as we have frequently
said; for that which is without qualification good or pleasant seems
to be lovable and desirable, and for each person that which is good
or pleasant to him; and the good man is lovable and desirable to the
good man for both these reasons. Now it looks as if love were a feeling,
friendship a state of character; for love may be felt just as much
towards lifeless things, but mutual love involves choice and choice
springs from a state of character; and men wish well to those whom
they love, for their sake, not as a result of feeling but as a result
of a state of character. And in loving a friend men love what is good
for themselves; for the good man in becoming a friend becomes a good
to his friend. Each, then, both loves what is good for himself, and
makes an equal return in goodwill and in pleasantness; for friendship
is said to be equality, and both of these are found most in the friendship
of the good.

6

Between sour and elderly people friendship arises less readily, inasmuch
as they are less good-tempered and enjoy companionship less; for these
are thou to be the greatest marks of friendship productive of it.
This is why, while men become friends quickly, old men do not; it
is because men do not become friends with those in whom they do not
delight; and similarly sour people do not quickly make friends either.
But such men may bear goodwill to each other; for they wish one another
well and aid one another in need; but they are hardly friends because
they do not spend their days together nor delight in each other, and
these are thought the greatest marks of friendship.

One cannot be a friend to many people in the sense of having friendship
of the perfect type with them, just as one cannot be in love with
many people at once (for love is a sort of excess of feeling, and
it is the nature of such only to be felt towards one person); and
it is not easy for many people at the same time to please the same
person very greatly, or perhaps even to be good in his eyes. One must,
too, acquire some experience of the other person and become familiar
with him, and that is very hard. But with a view to utility or pleasure
it is possible that many people should please one; for many people
are useful or pleasant, and these services take little time.

Of these two kinds that which is for the sake of pleasure is the more
like friendship, when both parties get the same things from each other
and delight in each other or in the things, as in the friendships
of the young; for generosity is more found in such friendships. Friendship
based on utility is for the commercially minded. People who are supremely
happy, too, have no need of useful friends, but do need pleasant friends;
for they wish to live with some one and, though they can endure for
a short time what is painful, no one could put up with it continuously,
nor even with the Good itself if it were painful to him; this is why
they look out for friends who are pleasant. Perhaps they should look
out for friends who, being pleasant, are also good, and good for them
too; for so they will have all the characteristics that friends should
have.

People in positions of authority seem to have friends who fall into
distinct classes; some people are useful to them and others are pleasant,
but the same people are rarely both; for they seek neither those whose
pleasantness is accompanied by virtue nor those whose utility is with
a view to noble objects, but in their desire for pleasure they seek
for ready-witted people, and their other friends they choose as being
clever at doing what they are told, and these characteristics are
rarely combined. Now we have said that the good man is at the same
time pleasant and useful; but such a man does not become the friend
of one who surpasses him in station, unless he is surpassed also in
virtue; if this is not so, he does not establish equality by being
proportionally exceeded in both respects. But people who surpass him
in both respects are not so easy to find.

However that may be, the aforesaid friendships involve equality; for
the friends get the same things from one another and wish the same
things for one another, or exchange one thing for another, e.g. pleasure
for utility; we have said, however, that they are both less truly
friendships and less permanent.

But it is from their likeness and their unlikeness to the same thing
that they are thought both to be and not to be friendships. It is
by their likeness to the friendship of virtue that they seem to be
friendships (for one of them involves pleasure and the other utility,
and these characteristics belong to the friendship of virtue as well);
while it is because the friendship of virtue is proof against slander
and permanent, while these quickly change (besides differing from
the former in many other respects), that they appear not to be friendships;
i.e. it is because of their unlikeness to the friendship of virtue.

7

But there is another kind of friendship, viz. that which involves
an inequality between the parties, e.g. that of father to son and
in general of elder to younger, that of man to wife and in general
that of ruler to subject. And these friendships differ also from each
other; for it is not the same that exists between parents and children
and between rulers and subjects, nor is even that of father to son
the same as that of son to father, nor that of husband to wife the
same as that of wife to husband. For the virtue and the function of
each of these is different, and so are the reasons for which they
love; the love and the friendship are therefore different also. Each
party, then, neither gets the same from the other, nor ought to seek
it; but when children render to parents what they ought to render
to those who brought them into the world, and parents render what
they should to their children, the friendship of such persons will
be abiding and excellent. In all friendships implying inequality the
love also should be proportional, i.e. the better should be more loved
than he loves, and so should the more useful, and similarly in each
of the other cases; for when the love is in proportion to the merit
of the parties, then in a sense arises equality, which is certainly
held to be characteristic of friendship.

But equality does not seem to take the same form in acts of justice
and in friendship; for in acts of justice what is equal in the primary
sense is that which is in proportion to merit, while quantitative
equality is secondary, but in friendship quantitative equality is
primary and proportion to merit secondary. This becomes clear if there
is a great interval in respect of virtue or vice or wealth or anything
else between the parties; for then they are no longer friends, and
do not even expect to be so. And this is most manifest in the case
of the gods; for they surpass us most decisively in all good things.
But it is clear also in the case of kings; for with them, too, men
who are much their inferiors do not expect to be friends; nor do men
of no account expect to be friends with the best or wisest men. In
such cases it is not possible to define exactly up to what point friends
can remain friends; for much can be taken away and friendship remain,
but when one party is removed to a great distance, as God is, the
possibility of friendship ceases. This is in fact the origin of the
question whether friends really wish for their friends the greatest
goods, e.g. that of being gods; since in that case their friends will
no longer be friends to them, and therefore will not be good things
for them (for friends are good things). The answer is that if we were
right in saying that friend wishes good to friend for his sake, his
friend must remain the sort of being he is, whatever that may be;
therefore it is for him oily so long as he remains a man that he will
wish the greatest goods. But perhaps not all the greatest goods; for
it is for himself most of all that each man wishes what is good.

8

Most people seem, owing to ambition, to wish to be loved rather than
to love; which is why most men love flattery; for the flatterer is
a friend in an inferior position, or pretends to be such and to love
more than he is loved; and being loved seems to be akin to being honoured,
and this is what most people aim at. But it seems to be not for its
own sake that people choose honour, but incidentally. For most people
enjoy being honoured by those in positions of authority because of
their hopes (for they think that if they want anything they will get
it from them; and therefore they delight in honour as a token of favour
to come); while those who desire honour from good men, and men who
know, are aiming at confirming their own opinion of themselves; they
delight in honour, therefore, because they believe in their own goodness
on the strength of the judgement of those who speak about them. In
being loved, on the other hand, people delight for its own sake; whence
it would seem to be better than being honoured, and friendship to
be desirable in itself. But it seems to lie in loving rather than
in being loved, as is indicated by the delight mothers take in loving;
for some mothers hand over their children to be brought up, and so
long as they know their fate they love them and do not seek to be
loved in return (if they cannot have both), but seem to be satisfied
if they see them prospering; and they themselves love their children
even if these owing to their ignorance give them nothing of a mother’s
due. Now since friendship depends more on loving, and it is those
who love their friends that are praised, loving seems to be the characteristic
virtue of friends, so that it is only those in whom this is found
in due measure that are lasting friends, and only their friendship
that endures.

It is in this way more than any other that even unequals can be friends;
they can be equalized. Now equality and likeness are friendship, and
especially the likeness of those who are like in virtue; for being
steadfast in themselves they hold fast to each other, and neither
ask nor give base services, but (one may say) even prevent them; for
it is characteristic of good men neither to go wrong themselves nor
to let their friends do so. But wicked men have no steadfastness (for
they do not remain even like to themselves), but become friends for
a short time because they delight in each other’s wickedness. Friends
who are useful or pleasant last longer; i.e. as long as they provide
each other with enjoyments or advantages. Friendship for utility’s
sake seems to be that which most easily exists between contraries,
e.g. between poor and rich, between ignorant and learned; for what
a man actually lacks he aims at, and one gives something else in return.
But under this head, too, might bring lover and beloved, beautiful
and ugly. This is why lovers sometimes seem ridiculous, when they
demand to be loved as they love; if they are equally lovable their
claim can perhaps be justified, but when they have nothing lovable
about them it is ridiculous. Perhaps, however, contrary does not even
aim at contrary by its own nature, but only incidentally, the desire
being for what is intermediate; for that is what is good, e.g. it
is good for the dry not to become wet but to come to the intermediate
state, and similarly with the hot and in all other cases. These subjects
we may dismiss; for they are indeed somewhat foreign to our inquiry.

9

Friendship and justice seem, as we have said at the outset of our
discussion, to be concerned with the same objects and exhibited between
the same persons. For in every community there is thought to be some
form of justice, and friendship too; at least men address as friends
their fellow-voyagers and fellowsoldiers, and so too those associated
with them in any other kind of community. And the extent of their
association is the extent of their friendship, as it is the extent
to which justice exists between them. And the proverb ‘what friends
have is common property’ expresses the truth; for friendship depends
on community. Now brothers and comrades have all things in common,
but the others to whom we have referred have definite things in common-some
more things, others fewer; for of friendships, too, some are more
and others less truly friendships. And the claims of justice differ
too; the duties of parents to children, and those of brothers to each
other are not the same, nor those of comrades and those of fellow-citizens,
and so, too, with the other kinds of friendship. There is a difference,
therefore, also between the acts that are unjust towards each of these
classes of associates, and the injustice increases by being exhibited
towards those who are friends in a fuller sense; e.g. it is a more
terrible thing to defraud a comrade than a fellow-citizen, more terrible
not to help a brother than a stranger, and more terrible to wound
a father than any one else. And the demands of justice also seem to
increase with the intensity of the friendship, which implies that
friendship and justice exist between the same persons and have an
equal extension.

Now all forms of community are like parts of the political community;
for men journey together with a view to some particular advantage,
and to provide something that they need for the purposes of life;
and it is for the sake of advantage that the political community too
seems both to have come together originally and to endure, for this
is what legislators aim at, and they call just that which is to the
common advantage. Now the other communities aim at advantage bit by
bit, e.g. sailors at what is advantageous on a voyage with a view
to making money or something of the kind, fellow-soldiers at what
is advantageous in war, whether it is wealth or victory or the taking
of a city that they seek, and members of tribes and demes act similarly
(Some communities seem to arise for the sake or pleasure, viz. religious
guilds and social clubs; for these exist respectively for the sake
of offering sacrifice and of companionship. But all these seem to
fall under the political community; for it aims not at present advantage
but at what is advantageous for life as a whole), offering sacrifices
and arranging gatherings for the purpose, and assigning honours to
the gods, and providing pleasant relaxations for themselves. For the
ancient sacrifices and gatherings seem to take place after the harvest
as a sort of firstfruits, because it was at these seasons that people
had most leisure. All the communities, then, seem to be parts of the
political community; and the particular kinds friendship will correspond
to the particular kinds of community.

10

There are three kinds of constitution, and an equal number of deviation-forms–perversions,
as it were, of them. The constitutions are monarchy, aristocracy,
and thirdly that which is based on a property qualification, which
it seems appropriate to call timocratic, though most people are wont
to call it polity. The best of these is monarchy, the worst timocracy.
The deviation from monarchy is tyrany; for both are forms of one-man
rule, but there is the greatest difference between them; the tyrant
looks to his own advantage, the king to that of his subjects. For
a man is not a king unless he is sufficient to himself and excels
his subjects in all good things; and such a man needs nothing further;
therefore he will not look to his own interests but to those of his
subjects; for a king who is not like that would be a mere titular
king. Now tyranny is the very contrary of this; the tyrant pursues
his own good. And it is clearer in the case of tyranny that it is
the worst deviation-form; but it is the contrary of the best that
is worst. Monarchy passes over into tyranny; for tyranny is the evil
form of one-man rule and the bad king becomes a tyrant. Aristocracy
passes over into oligarchy by the badness of the rulers, who distribute
contrary to equity what belongs to the city-all or most of the good
things to themselves, and office always to the same people, paying
most regard to wealth; thus the rulers are few and are bad men instead
of the most worthy. Timocracy passes over into democracy; for these
are coterminous, since it is the ideal even of timocracy to be the
rule of the majority, and all who have the property qualification
count as equal. Democracy is the least bad of the deviations; for
in its case the form of constitution is but a slight deviation. These
then are the changes to which constitutions are most subject; for
these are the smallest and easiest transitions.

One may find resemblances to the constitutions and, as it were, patterns
of them even in households. For the association of a father with his
sons bears the form of monarchy, since the father cares for his children;
and this is why Homer calls Zeus ‘father’; it is the ideal of monarchy
to be paternal rule. But among the Persians the rule of the father
is tyrannical; they use their sons as slaves. Tyrannical too is the
rule of a master over slaves; for it is the advantage of the master
that is brought about in it. Now this seems to be a correct form of
government, but the Persian type is perverted; for the modes of rule
appropriate to different relations are diverse. The association of
man and wife seems to be aristocratic; for the man rules in accordance
with his worth, and in those matters in which a man should rule, but
the matters that befit a woman he hands over to her. If the man rules
in everything the relation passes over into oligarchy; for in doing
so he is not acting in accordance with their respective worth, and
not ruling in virtue of his superiority. Sometimes, however, women
rule, because they are heiresses; so their rule is not in virtue of
excellence but due to wealth and power, as in oligarchies. The association
of brothers is like timocracy; for they are equal, except in so far
as they differ in age; hence if they differ much in age, the friendship
is no longer of the fraternal type. Democracy is found chiefly in
masterless dwellings (for here every one is on an equality), and in
those in which the ruler is weak and every one has licence to do as
he pleases.

11

Each of the constitutions may be seen to involve friendship just in
so far as it involves justice. The friendship between a king and his
subjects depends on an excess of benefits conferred; for he confers
benefits on his subjects if being a good man he cares for them with
a view to their well-being, as a shepherd does for his sheep (whence
Homer called Agamemnon ‘shepherd of the peoples’). Such too is the
friendship of a father, though this exceeds the other in the greatness
of the benefits conferred; for he is responsible for the existence
of his children, which is thought the greatest good, and for their
nurture and upbringing.

These things are ascribed to ancestors as well. Further, by nature
a father tends to rule over his sons, ancestors over descendants,
a king over his subjects. These friendships imply superiority of one
party over the other, which is why ancestors are honoured. The justice
therefore that exists between persons so related is not the same on
both sides but is in every case proportioned to merit; for that is
true of the friendship as well. The friendship of man and wife, again,
is the same that is found in an aristocracy; for it is in accordance
with virtue the better gets more of what is good, and each gets what
befits him; and so, too, with the justice in these relations. The
friendship of brothers is like that of comrades; for they are equal
and of like age, and such persons are for the most part like in their
feelings and their character. Like this, too, is the friendship appropriate
to timocratic government; for in such a constitution the ideal is
for the citizens to be equal and fair; therefore rule is taken in
turn, and on equal terms; and the friendship appropriate here will
correspond.

But in the deviation-forms, as justice hardly exists, so too does
friendship. It exists least in the worst form; in tyranny there is
little or no friendship. For where there is nothing common to ruler
and ruled, there is not friendship either, since there is not justice;
e.g. between craftsman and tool, soul and body, master and slave;
the latter in each case is benefited by that which uses it, but there
is no friendship nor justice towards lifeless things. But neither
is there friendship towards a horse or an ox, nor to a slave qua slave.
For there is nothing common to the two parties; the slave is a living
tool and the tool a lifeless slave. Qua slave then, one cannot be
friends with him. But qua man one can; for there seems to be some
justice between any man and any other who can share in a system of
law or be a party to an agreement; therefore there can also be friendship
with him in so far as he is a man. Therefore while in tyrannies friendship
and justice hardly exist, in democracies they exist more fully; for
where the citizens are equal they have much in common.

12

Every form of friendship, then, involves association, as has been
said. One might, however, mark off from the rest both the friendship
of kindred and that of comrades. Those of fellow-citizens, fellow-tribesmen,
fellow-voyagers, and the like are more like mere friendships of association;
for they seem to rest on a sort of compact. With them we might class
the friendship of host and guest. The friendship of kinsmen itself,
while it seems to be of many kinds, appears to depend in every case
on parental friendship; for parents love their children as being a
part of themselves, and children their parents as being something
originating from them. Now (1) arents know their offspring better
than there children know that they are their children, and (2) the
originator feels his offspring to be his own more than the offspring
do their begetter; for the product belongs to the producer (e.g. a
tooth or hair or anything else to him whose it is), but the producer
does not belong to the product, or belongs in a less degree. And (3)
the length of time produces the same result; parents love their children
as soon as these are born, but children love their parents only after
time has elapsed and they have acquired understanding or the power
of discrimination by the senses. From these considerations it is also
plain why mothers love more than fathers do. Parents, then, love their
children as themselves (for their issue are by virtue of their separate
existence a sort of other selves), while children love their parents
as being born of them, and brothers love each other as being born
of the same parents; for their identity with them makes them identical
with each other (which is the reason why people talk of ‘the same
blood’, ‘the same stock’, and so on). They are, therefore, in a sense
the same thing, though in separate individuals. Two things that contribute
greatly to friendship are a common upbringing and similarity of age;
for ‘two of an age take to each other’, and people brought up together
tend to be comrades; whence the friendship of brothers is akin to
that of comrades. And cousins and other kinsmen are bound up together
by derivation from brothers, viz. by being derived from the same parents.
They come to be closer together or farther apart by virtue of the
nearness or distance of the original ancestor.

The friendship of children to parents, and of men to gods, is a relation
to them as to something good and superior; for they have conferred
the greatest benefits, since they are the causes of their being and
of their nourishment, and of their education from their birth; and
this kind of friendship possesses pleasantness and utility also, more
than that of strangers, inasmuch as their life is lived more in common.
The friendship of brothers has the characteristics found in that of
comrades (and especially when these are good), and in general between
people who are like each other, inasmuch as they belong more to each
other and start with a love for each other from their very birth,
and inasmuch as those born of the same parents and brought up together
and similarly educated are more akin in character; and the test of
time has been applied most fully and convincingly in their case.

Between other kinsmen friendly relations are found in due proportion.
Between man and wife friendship seems to exist by nature; for man
is naturally inclined to form couples-even more than to form cities,
inasmuch as the household is earlier and more necessary than the city,
and reproduction is more common to man with the animals. With the
other animals the union extends only to this point, but human beings
live together not only for the sake of reproduction but also for the
various purposes of life; for from the start the functions are divided,
and those of man and woman are different; so they help each other
by throwing their peculiar gifts into the common stock. It is for
these reasons that both utility and pleasure seem to be found in this
kind of friendship. But this friendship may be based also on virtue,
if the parties are good; for each has its own virtue and they will
delight in the fact. And children seem to be a bond of union (which
is the reason why childless people part more easily); for children
are a good common to both and what is common holds them together.

How man and wife and in general friend and friend ought mutually to
behave seems to be the same question as how it is just for them to
behave; for a man does not seem to have the same duties to a friend,
a stranger, a comrade, and a schoolfellow.

13

There are three kinds of friendship, as we said at the outset of our
inquiry, and in respect of each some are friends on an equality and
others by virtue of a superiority (for not only can equally good men
become friends but a better man can make friends with a worse, and
similarly in friendships of pleasure or utility the friends may be
equal or unequal in the benefits they confer). This being so, equals
must effect the required equalization on a basis of equality in love
and in all other respects, while unequals must render what is in proportion
to their superiority or inferiority. Complaints and reproaches arise
either only or chiefly in the friendship of utility, and this is only
to be expected. For those who are friends on the ground of virtue
are anxious to do well by each other (since that is a mark of virtue
and of friendship), and between men who are emulating each other in
this there cannot be complaints or quarrels; no one is offended by
a man who loves him and does well by him-if he is a person of nice
feeling he takes his revenge by doing well by the other. And the man
who excels the other in the services he renders will not complain
of his friend, since he gets what he aims at; for each man desires
what is good. Nor do complaints arise much even in friendships of
pleasure; for both get at the same time what they desire, if they
enjoy spending their time together; and even a man who complained
of another for not affording him pleasure would seem ridiculous, since
it is in his power not to spend his days with him.

But the friendship of utility is full of complaints; for as they use
each other for their own interests they always want to get the better
of the bargain, and think they have got less than they should, and
blame their partners because they do not get all they ‘want and deserve’;
and those who do well by others cannot help them as much as those
whom they benefit want.

Now it seems that, as justice is of two kinds, one unwritten and the
other legal, one kind of friendship of utility is moral and the other
legal. And so complaints arise most of all when men do not dissolve
the relation in the spirit of the same type of friendship in which
they contracted it. The legal type is that which is on fixed terms;
its purely commercial variety is on the basis of immediate payment,
while the more liberal variety allows time but stipulates for a definite
quid pro quo. In this variety the debt is clear and not ambiguous,
but in the postponement it contains an element of friendliness; and
so some states do not allow suits arising out of such agreements,
but think men who have bargained on a basis of credit ought to accept
the consequences. The moral type is not on fixed terms; it makes a
gift, or does whatever it does, as to a friend; but one expects to
receive as much or more, as having not given but lent; and if a man
is worse off when the relation is dissolved than he was when it was
contracted he will complain. This happens because all or most men,
while they wish for what is noble, choose what is advantageous; now
it is noble to do well by another without a view to repayment, but
it is the receiving of benefits that is advantageous. Therefore if
we can we should return the equivalent of what we have received (for
we must not make a man our friend against his will; we must recognize
that we were mistaken at the first and took a benefit from a person
we should not have taken it from-since it was not from a friend, nor
from one who did it just for the sake of acting so-and we must settle
up just as if we had been benefited on fixed terms). Indeed, one would
agree to repay if one could (if one could not, even the giver would
not have expected one to do so); therefore if it is possible we must
repay. But at the outset we must consider the man by whom we are being
benefited and on what terms he is acting, in order that we may accept
the benefit on these terms, or else decline it.

It is disputable whether we ought to measure a service by its utility
to the receiver and make the return with a view to that, or by the
benevolence of the giver. For those who have received say they have
received from their benefactors what meant little to the latter and
what they might have got from others-minimizing the service; while
the givers, on the contrary, say it was the biggest thing they had,
and what could not have been got from others, and that it was given
in times of danger or similar need. Now if the friendship is one that
aims at utility, surely the advantage to the receiver is the measure.
For it is he that asks for the service, and the other man helps him
on the assumption that he will receive the equivalent; so the assistance
has been precisely as great as the advantage to the receiver, and
therefore he must return as much as he has received, or even more
(for that would be nobler). In friendships based on virtue on the
other hand, complaints do not arise, but the purpose of the doer is
a sort of measure; for in purpose lies the essential element of virtue
and character.

14

Differences arise also in friendships based on superiority; for each
expects to get more out of them, but when this happens the friendship
is dissolved. Not only does the better man think he ought to get more,
since more should be assigned to a good man, but the more useful similarly
expects this; they say a useless man should not get as much as they
should, since it becomes an act of public service and not a friendship
if the proceeds of the friendship do not answer to the worth of the
benefits conferred. For they think that, as in a commercial partnership
those who put more in get more out, so it should be in friendship.
But the man who is in a state of need and inferiority makes the opposite
claim; they think it is the part of a good friend to help those who
are in need; what, they say, is the use of being the friend of a good
man or a powerful man, if one is to get nothing out of it?

At all events it seems that each party is justified in his claim,
and that each should get more out of the friendship than the other-not
more of the same thing, however, but the superior more honour and
the inferior more gain; for honour is the prize of virtue and of beneficence,
while gain is the assistance required by inferiority.

It seems to be so in constitutional arrangements also; the man who
contributes nothing good to the common stock is not honoured; for
what belongs to the public is given to the man who benefits the public,
and honour does belong to the public. It is not possible to get wealth
from the common stock and at the same time honour. For no one puts
up with the smaller share in all things; therefore to the man who
loses in wealth they assign honour and to the man who is willing to
be paid, wealth, since the proportion to merit equalizes the parties
and preserves the friendship, as we have said. This then is also the
way in which we should associate with unequals; the man who is benefited
in respect of wealth or virtue must give honour in return, repaying
what he can. For friendship asks a man to do what he can, not what
is proportional to the merits of the case; since that cannot always
be done, e.g. in honours paid to the gods or to parents; for no one
could ever return to them the equivalent of what he gets, but the
man who serves them to the utmost of his power is thought to be a
good man. This is why it would not seem open to a man to disown his
father (though a father may disown his son); being in debt, he should
repay, but there is nothing by doing which a son will have done the
equivalent of what he has received, so that he is always in debt.
But creditors can remit a debt; and a father can therefore do so too.
At the same time it is thought that presumably no one would repudiate
a son who was not far gone in wickedness; for apart from the natural
friendship of father and son it is human nature not to reject a son’s
assistance. But the son, if he is wicked, will naturally avoid aiding
his father, or not be zealous about it; for most people wish to get
benefits, but avoid doing them, as a thing unprofitable.-So much for
these questions.

BOOK IX Friendship, self-love and love of others

BOOK IX

1

In all friendships between dissimilars it is, as we have said, proportion
that equalizes the parties and preserves the friendship; e.g. in the
political form of friendship the shoemaker gets a return for his shoes
in proportion to his worth, and the weaver and all other craftsmen
do the same. Now here a common measure has been provided in the form
of money, and therefore everything is referred to this and measured
by this; but in the friendship of lovers sometimes the lover complains
that his excess of love is not met by love in return though perhaps
there is nothing lovable about him), while often the beloved complains
that the lover who formerly promised everything now performs nothing.
Such incidents happen when the lover loves the beloved for the sake
of pleasure while the beloved loves the lover for the sake of utility,
and they do not both possess the qualities expected of them. If these
be the objects of the friendship it is dissolved when they do not
get the things that formed the motives of their love; for each did
not love the other person himself but the qualities he had, and these
were not enduring; that is why the friendships also are transient.
But the love of characters, as has been said, endures because it is
self-dependent. Differences arise when what they get is something
different and not what they desire; for it is like getting nothing
at all when we do not get what we aim at; compare the story of the
person who made promises to a lyre-player, promising him the more,
the better he sang, but in the morning, when the other demanded the
fulfilment of his promises, said that he had given pleasure for pleasure.
Now if this had been what each wanted, all would have been well; but
if the one wanted enjoyment but the other gain, and the one has what
he wants while the other has not, the terms of the association will
not have been properly fulfilled; for what each in fact wants is what
he attends to, and it is for the sake of that that that he will give
what he has.

But who is to fix the worth of the service; he who makes the sacrifice
or he who has got the advantage? At any rate the other seems to leave
it to him. This is what they say Protagoras used to do; whenever he
taught anything whatsoever, he bade the learner assess the value of
the knowledge, and accepted the amount so fixed. But in such matters
some men approve of the saying ‘let a man have his fixed reward’.
Those who get the money first and then do none of the things they
said they would, owing to the extravagance of their promises, naturally
find themselves the objects of complaint; for they do not fulfil what
they agreed to. The sophists are perhaps compelled to do this because
no one would give money for the things they do know. These people
then, if they do not do what they have been paid for, are naturally
made the objects of complaint.

But where there is no contract of service, those who give up something
for the sake of the other party cannot (as we have said) be complained
of (for that is the nature of the friendship of virtue), and the return
to them must be made on the basis of their purpose (for it is purpose
that is the characteristic thing in a friend and in virtue). And so
too, it seems, should one make a return to those with whom one has
studied philosophy; for their worth cannot be measured against money,
and they can get no honour which will balance their services, but
still it is perhaps enough, as it is with the gods and with one’s
parents, to give them what one can.

If the gift was not of this sort, but was made with a view to a return,
it is no doubt preferable that the return made should be one that
seems fair to both parties, but if this cannot be achieved, it would
seem not only necessary that the person who gets the first service
should fix the reward, but also just; for if the other gets in return
the equivalent of the advantage the beneficiary has received, or the
price lie would have paid for the pleasure, he will have got what
is fair as from the other.

We see this happening too with things put up for sale, and in some
places there are laws providing that no actions shall arise out of
voluntary contracts, on the assumption that one should settle with
a person to whom one has given credit, in the spirit in which one
bargained with him. The law holds that it is more just that the person
to whom credit was given should fix the terms than that the person
who gave credit should do so. For most things are not assessed at
the same value by those who have them and those who want them; each
class values highly what is its own and what it is offering; yet the
return is made on the terms fixed by the receiver. But no doubt the
receiver should assess a thing not at what it seems worth when he
has it, but at what he assessed it at before he had it.

2

A further problem is set by such questions as, whether one should
in all things give the preference to one’s father and obey him, or
whether when one is ill one should trust a doctor, and when one has
to elect a general should elect a man of military skill; and similarly
whether one should render a service by preference to a friend or to
a good man, and should show gratitude to a benefactor or oblige a
friend, if one cannot do both.

All such questions are hard, are they not, to decide with precision?
For they admit of many variations of all sorts in respect both of
the magnitude of the service and of its nobility necessity. But that
we should not give the preference in all things to the same person
is plain enough; and we must for the most part return benefits rather
than oblige friends, as we must pay back a loan to a creditor rather
than make one to a friend. But perhaps even this is not always true;
e.g. should a man who has been ransomed out of the hands of brigands
ransom his ransomer in return, whoever he may be (or pay him if he
has not been captured but demands payment) or should he ransom his
father? It would seem that he should ransom his father in preference
even to himself. As we have said, then, generally the debt should
be paid, but if the gift is exceedingly noble or exceedingly necessary,
one should defer to these considerations. For sometimes it is not
even fair to return the equivalent of what one has received, when
the one man has done a service to one whom he knows to be good, while
the other makes a return to one whom he believes to be bad. For that
matter, one should sometimes not lend in return to one who has lent
to oneself; for the one person lent to a good man, expecting to recover
his loan, while the other has no hope of recovering from one who is
believed to be bad. Therefore if the facts really are so, the demand
is not fair; and if they are not, but people think they are, they
would be held to be doing nothing strange in refusing. As we have
often pointed out, then, discussions about feelings and actions have
just as much definiteness as their subject-matter.

That we should not make the same return to every one, nor give a father
the preference in everything, as one does not sacrifice everything
to Zeus, is plain enough; but since we ought to render different things
to parents, brothers, comrades, and benefactors, we ought to render
to each class what is appropriate and becoming. And this is what people
seem in fact to do; to marriages they invite their kinsfolk; for these
have a part in the family and therefore in the doings that affect
the family; and at funerals also they think that kinsfolk, before
all others, should meet, for the same reason. And it would be thought
that in the matter of food we should help our parents before all others,
since we owe our own nourishment to them, and it is more honourable
to help in this respect the authors of our being even before ourselves;
and honour too one should give to one’s parents as one does to the
gods, but not any and every honour; for that matter one should not
give the same honour to one’s father and one’s mother, nor again should
one give them the honour due to a philosopher or to a general, but
the honour due to a father, or again to a mother. To all older persons,
too, one should give honour appropriate to their age, by rising to
receive them and finding seats for them and so on; while to comrades
and brothers one should allow freedom of speech and common use of
all things. To kinsmen, too, and fellow-tribesmen and fellow-citizens
and to every other class one should always try to assign what is appropriate,
and to compare the claims of each class with respect to nearness of
relation and to virtue or usefulness. The comparison is easier when
the persons belong to the same class, and more laborious when they
are different. Yet we must not on that account shrink from the task,
but decide the question as best we can.

3

Another question that arises is whether friendships should or should
not be broken off when the other party does not remain the same. Perhaps
we may say that there is nothing strange in breaking off a friendship
based on utility or pleasure, when our friends no longer have these
attributes. For it was of these attributes that we were the friends;
and when these have failed it is reasonable to love no longer. But
one might complain of another if, when he loved us for our usefulness
or pleasantness, he pretended to love us for our character. For, as
we said at the outset, most differences arise between friends when
they are not friends in the spirit in which they think they are. So
when a man has deceived himself and has thought he was being loved
for his character, when the other person was doing nothing of the
kind, he must blame himself; when he has been deceived by the pretences
of the other person, it is just that he should complain against his
deceiver; he will complain with more justice than one does against
people who counterfeit the currency, inasmuch as the wrongdoing is
concerned with something more valuable.

But if one accepts another man as good, and he turns out badly and
is seen to do so, must one still love him? Surely it is impossible,
since not everything can be loved, but only what is good. What is
evil neither can nor should be loved; for it is not one’s duty to
be a lover of evil, nor to become like what is bad; and we have said
that like is dear like. Must the friendship, then, be forthwith broken
off? Or is this not so in all cases, but only when one’s friends are
incurable in their wickedness? If they are capable of being reformed
one should rather come to the assistance of their character or their
property, inasmuch as this is better and more characteristic of friendship.
But a man who breaks off such a friendship would seem to be doing
nothing strange; for it was not to a man of this sort that he was
a friend; when his friend has changed, therefore, and he is unable
to save him, he gives him up.

But if one friend remained the same while the other became better
and far outstripped him in virtue, should the latter treat the former
as a friend? Surely he cannot. When the interval is great this becomes
most plain, e.g. in the case of childish friendships; if one friend
remained a child in intellect while the other became a fully developed
man, how could they be friends when they neither approved of the same
things nor delighted in and were pained by the same things? For not
even with regard to each other will their tastes agree, and without
this (as we saw) they cannot be friends; for they cannot live together.
But we have discussed these matters.

Should he, then, behave no otherwise towards him than he would if
he had never been his friend? Surely he should keep a remembrance
of their former intimacy, and as we think we ought to oblige friends
rather than strangers, so to those who have been our friends we ought
to make some allowance for our former friendship, when the breach
has not been due to excess of wickedness.

4

Friendly relations with one’s neighbours, and the marks by which friendships
are defined, seem to have proceeded from a man’s relations to himself.
For (1) we define a friend as one who wishes and does what is good,
or seems so, for the sake of his friend, or (2) as one who wishes
his friend to exist and live, for his sake; which mothers do to their
children, and friends do who have come into conflict. And (3) others
define him as one who lives with and (4) has the same tastes as another,
or (5) one who grieves and rejoices with his friend; and this too
is found in mothers most of all. It is by some one of these characterstics
that friendship too is defined.

Now each of these is true of the good man’s relation to himself (and
of all other men in so far as they think themselves good; virtue and
the good man seem, as has been said, to be the measure of every class
of things). For his opinions are harmonious, and he desires the same
things with all his soul; and therefore he wishes for himself what
is good and what seems so, and does it (for it is characteristic of
the good man to work out the good), and does so for his own sake (for
he does it for the sake of the intellectual element in him, which
is thought to be the man himself); and he wishes himself to live and
be preserved, and especially the element by virtue of which he thinks.
For existence is good to the virtuous man, and each man wishes himself
what is good, while no one chooses to possess the whole world if he
has first to become some one else (for that matter, even now God possesses
the good); he wishes for this only on condition of being whatever
he is; and the element that thinks would seem to be the individual
man, or to be so more than any other element in him. And such a man
wishes to live with himself; for he does so with pleasure, since the
memories of his past acts are delightful and his hopes for the future
are good, and therefore pleasant. His mind is well stored too with
subjects of contemplation. And he grieves and rejoices, more than
any other, with himself; for the same thing is always painful, and
the same thing always pleasant, and not one thing at one time and
another at another; he has, so to speak, nothing to repent of.

Therefore, since each of these characteristics belongs to the good
man in relation to himself, and he is related to his friend as to
himself (for his friend is another self), friendship too is thought
to be one of these attributes, and those who have these attributes
to be friends. Whether there is or is not friendship between a man
and himself is a question we may dismiss for the present; there would
seem to be friendship in so far as he is two or more, to judge from
the afore-mentioned attributes of friendship, and from the fact that
the extreme of friendship is likened to one’s love for oneself.

But the attributes named seem to belong even to the majority of men,
poor creatures though they may be. Are we to say then that in so far
as they are satisfied with themselves and think they are good, they
share in these attributes? Certainly no one who is thoroughly bad
and impious has these attributes, or even seems to do so. They hardly
belong even to inferior people; for they are at variance with themselves,
and have appetites for some things and rational desires for others.
This is true, for instance, of incontinent people; for they choose,
instead of the things they themselves think good, things that are
pleasant but hurtful; while others again, through cowardice and laziness,
shrink from doing what they think best for themselves. And those who
have done many terrible deeds and are hated for their wickedness even
shrink from life and destroy themselves. And wicked men seek for people
with whom to spend their days, and shun themselves; for they remember
many a grevious deed, and anticipate others like them, when they are
by themselves, but when they are with others they forget. And having
nothing lovable in them they have no feeling of love to themselves.
Therefore also such men do not rejoice or grieve with themselves;
for their soul is rent by faction, and one element in it by reason
of its wickedness grieves when it abstains from certain acts, while
the other part is pleased, and one draws them this way and the other
that, as if they were pulling them in pieces. If a man cannot at the
same time be pained and pleased, at all events after a short time
he is pained because he was pleased, and he could have wished that
these things had not been pleasant to him; for bad men are laden with
repentance.

Therefore the bad man does not seem to be amicably disposed even to
himself, because there is nothing in him to love; so that if to be
thus is the height of wretchedness, we should strain every nerve to
avoid wickedness and should endeavour to be good; for so and only
so can one be either friendly to oneself or a friend to another.

5

Goodwill is a friendly sort of relation, but is not identical with
friendship; for one may have goodwill both towards people whom one
does not know, and without their knowing it, but not friendship. This
has indeed been said already.’ But goodwill is not even friendly feeling.
For it does not involve intensity or desire, whereas these accompany
friendly feeling; and friendly feeling implies intimacy while goodwill
may arise of a sudden, as it does towards competitors in a contest;
we come to feel goodwill for them and to share in their wishes, but
we would not do anything with them; for, as we said, we feel goodwill
suddenly and love them only superficially.

Goodwill seems, then, to be a beginning of friendship, as the pleasure
of the eye is the beginning of love. For no one loves if he has not
first been delighted by the form of the beloved, but he who delights
in the form of another does not, for all that, love him, but only
does so when he also longs for him when absent and craves for his
presence; so too it is not possible for people to be friends if they
have not come to feel goodwill for each other, but those who feel
goodwill are not for all that friends; for they only wish well to
those for whom they feel goodwill, and would not do anything with
them nor take trouble for them. And so one might by an extension of
the term friendship say that goodwill is inactive friendship, though
when it is prolonged and reaches the point of intimacy it becomes
friendship-not the friendship based on utility nor that based on pleasure;
for goodwill too does not arise on those terms. The man who has received
a benefit bestows goodwill in return for what has been done to him,
but in doing so is only doing what is just; while he who wishes some
one to prosper because he hopes for enrichment through him seems to
have goodwill not to him but rather to himself, just as a man is not
a friend to another if he cherishes him for the sake of some use to
be made of him. In general, goodwill arises on account of some excellence
and worth, when one man seems to another beautiful or brave or something
of the sort, as we pointed out in the case of competitors in a contest.

6

Unanimity also seems to be a friendly relation. For this reason it
is not identity of opinion; for that might occur even with people
who do not know each other; nor do we say that people who have the
same views on any and every subject are unanimous, e.g. those who
agree about the heavenly bodies (for unanimity about these is not
a friendly relation), but we do say that a city is unanimous when
men have the same opinion about what is to their interest, and choose
the same actions, and do what they have resolved in common. It is
about things to be done, therefore, that people are said to be unanimous,
and, among these, about matters of consequence and in which it is
possible for both or all parties to get what they want; e.g. a city
is unanimous when all its citizens think that the offices in it should
be elective, or that they should form an alliance with Sparta, or
that Pittacus should be their ruler-at a time when he himself was
also willing to rule. But when each of two people wishes himself to
have the thing in question, like the captains in the Phoenissae, they
are in a state of faction; for it is not unanimity when each of two
parties thinks of the same thing, whatever that may be, but only when
they think of the same thing in the same hands, e.g. when both the
common people and those of the better class wish the best men to rule;
for thus and thus alone do all get what they aim at. Unanimity seems,
then, to be political friendship, as indeed it is commonly said to
be; for it is concerned with things that are to our interest and have
an influence on our life.

Now such unanimity is found among good men; for they are unanimous
both in themselves and with one another, being, so to say, of one
mind (for the wishes of such men are constant and not at the mercy
of opposing currents like a strait of the sea), and they wish for
what is just and what is advantageous, and these are the objects of
their common endeavour as well. But bad men cannot be unanimous except
to a small extent, any more than they can be friends, since they aim
at getting more than their share of advantages, while in labour and
public service they fall short of their share; and each man wishing
for advantage to himself criticizes his neighbour and stands in his
way; for if people do not watch it carefully the common weal is soon
destroyed. The result is that they are in a state of faction, putting
compulsion on each other but unwilling themselves to do what is just.

7

Benefactors are thought to love those they have benefited, more than
those who have been well treated love those that have treated them
well, and this is discussed as though it were paradoxical. Most people
think it is because the latter are in the position of debtors and
the former of creditors; and therefore as, in the case of loans, debtors
wish their creditors did not exist, while creditors actually take
care of the safety of their debtors, so it is thought that benefactors
wish the objects of their action to exist since they will then get
their gratitude, while the beneficiaries take no interest in making
this return. Epicharmus would perhaps declare that they say this because
they ‘look at things on their bad side’, but it is quite like human
nature; for most people are forgetful, and are more anxious to be
well treated than to treat others well. But the cause would seem to
be more deeply rooted in the nature of things; the case of those who
have lent money is not even analogous. For they have no friendly feeling
to their debtors, but only a wish that they may kept safe with a view
to what is to be got from them; while those who have done a service
to others feel friendship and love for those they have served even
if these are not of any use to them and never will be. This is what
happens with craftsmen too; every man loves his own handiwork better
than he would be loved by it if it came alive; and this happens perhaps
most of all with poets; for they have an excessive love for their
own poems, doting on them as if they were their children. This is
what the position of benefactors is like; for that which they have
treated well is their handiwork, and therefore they love this more
than the handiwork does its maker. The cause of this is that existence
is to all men a thing to be chosen and loved, and that we exist by
virtue of activity (i.e. by living and acting), and that the handiwork
is in a sense, the producer in activity; he loves his handiwork, therefore,
because he loves existence. And this is rooted in the nature of things;
for what he is in potentiality, his handiwork manifests in activity.

At the same time to the benefactor that is noble which depends on
his action, so that he delights in the object of his action, whereas
to the patient there is nothing noble in the agent, but at most something
advantageous, and this is less pleasant and lovable. What is pleasant
is the activity of the present, the hope of the future, the memory
of the past; but most pleasant is that which depends on activity,
and similarly this is most lovable. Now for a man who has made something
his work remains (for the noble is lasting), but for the person acted
on the utility passes away. And the memory of noble things is pleasant,
but that of useful things is not likely to be pleasant, or is less
so; though the reverse seems true of expectation.

Further, love is like activity, being loved like passivity; and loving
and its concomitants are attributes of those who are the more active.

Again, all men love more what they have won by labour; e.g. those
who have made their money love it more than those who have inherited
it; and to be well treated seems to involve no labour, while to treat
others well is a laborious task. These are the reasons, too, why mothers
are fonder of their children than fathers; bringing them into the
world costs them more pains, and they know better that the children
are their own. This last point, too, would seem to apply to benefactors.

8

The question is also debated, whether a man should love himself most,
or some one else. People criticize those who love themselves most,
and call them self-lovers, using this as an epithet of disgrace, and
a bad man seems to do everything for his own sake, and the more so
the more wicked he is-and so men reproach him, for instance, with
doing nothing of his own accord-while the good man acts for honour’s
sake, and the more so the better he is, and acts for his friend’s
sake, and sacrifices his own interest.

But the facts clash with these arguments, and this is not surprising.
For men say that one ought to love best one’s best friend, and man’s
best friend is one who wishes well to the object of his wish for his
sake, even if no one is to know of it; and these attributes are found
most of all in a man’s attitude towards himself, and so are all the
other attributes by which a friend is defined; for, as we have said,
it is from this relation that all the characteristics of friendship
have extended to our neighbours. All the proverbs, too, agree with
this, e.g. ‘a single soul’, and ‘what friends have is common property’,
and ‘friendship is equality’, and ‘charity begins at home’; for all
these marks will be found most in a man’s relation to himself; he
is his own best friend and therefore ought to love himself best. It
is therefore a reasonable question, which of the two views we should
follow; for both are plausible.

Perhaps we ought to mark off such arguments from each other and determine
how far and in what respects each view is right. Now if we grasp the
sense in which each school uses the phrase ‘lover of self’, the truth
may become evident. Those who use the term as one of reproach ascribe
self-love to people who assign to themselves the greater share of
wealth, honours, and bodily pleasures; for these are what most people
desire, and busy themselves about as though they were the best of
all things, which is the reason, too, why they become objects of competition.
So those who are grasping with regard to these things gratify their
appetites and in general their feelings and the irrational element
of the soul; and most men are of this nature (which is the reason
why the epithet has come to be used as it is-it takes its meaning
from the prevailing type of self-love, which is a bad one); it is
just, therefore, that men who are lovers of self in this way are reproached
for being so. That it is those who give themselves the preference
in regard to objects of this sort that most people usually call lovers
of self is plain; for if a man were always anxious that he himself,
above all things, should act justly, temperately, or in accordance
with any other of the virtues, and in general were always to try to
secure for himself the honourable course, no one will call such a
man a lover of self or blame him.

But such a man would seem more than the other a lover of self; at
all events he assigns to himself the things that are noblest and best,
and gratifies the most authoritative element in and in all things
obeys this; and just as a city or any other systematic whole is most
properly identified with the most authoritative element in it, so
is a man; and therefore the man who loves this and gratifies it is
most of all a lover of self. Besides, a man is said to have or not
to have self-control according as his reason has or has not the control,
on the assumption that this is the man himself; and the things men
have done on a rational principle are thought most properly their
own acts and voluntary acts. That this is the man himself, then, or
is so more than anything else, is plain, and also that the good man
loves most this part of him. Whence it follows that he is most truly
a lover of self, of another type than that which is a matter of reproach,
and as different from that as living according to a rational principle
is from living as passion dictates, and desiring what is noble from
desiring what seems advantageous. Those, then, who busy themselves
in an exceptional degree with noble actions all men approve and praise;
and if all were to strive towards what is noble and strain every nerve
to do the noblest deeds, everything would be as it should be for the
common weal, and every one would secure for himself the goods that
are greatest, since virtue is the greatest of goods.

Therefore the good man should be a lover of self (for he will both
himself profit by doing noble acts, and will benefit his fellows),
but the wicked man should not; for he will hurt both himself and his
neighbours, following as he does evil passions. For the wicked man,
what he does clashes with what he ought to do, but what the good man
ought to do he does; for reason in each of its possessors chooses
what is best for itself, and the good man obeys his reason. It is
true of the good man too that he does many acts for the sake of his
friends and his country, and if necessary dies for them; for he will
throw away both wealth and honours and in general the goods that are
objects of competition, gaining for himself nobility; since he would
prefer a short period of intense pleasure to a long one of mild enjoyment,
a twelvemonth of noble life to many years of humdrum existence, and
one great and noble action to many trivial ones. Now those who die
for others doubtless attain this result; it is therefore a great prize
that they choose for themselves. They will throw away wealth too on
condition that their friends will gain more; for while a man’s friend
gains wealth he himself achieves nobility; he is therefore assigning
the greater good to himself. The same too is true of honour and office;
all these things he will sacrifice to his friend; for this is noble
and laudable for himself. Rightly then is he thought to be good, since
he chooses nobility before all else. But he may even give up actions
to his friend; it may be nobler to become the cause of his friend’s
acting than to act himself. In all the actions, therefore, that men
are praised for, the good man is seen to assign to himself the greater
share in what is noble. In this sense, then, as has been said, a man
should be a lover of self; but in the sense in which most men are
so, he ought not.

9

It is also disputed whether the happy man will need friends or not.
It is said that those who are supremely happy and self-sufficient
have no need of friends; for they have the things that are good, and
therefore being self-sufficient they need nothing further, while a
friend, being another self, furnishes what a man cannot provide by
his own effort; whence the saying ‘when fortune is kind, what need
of friends?’ But it seems strange, when one assigns all good things
to the happy man, not to assign friends, who are thought the greatest
of external goods. And if it is more characteristic of a friend to
do well by another than to be well done by, and to confer benefits
is characteristic of the good man and of virtue, and it is nobler
to do well by friends than by strangers, the good man will need people
to do well by. This is why the question is asked whether we need friends
more in prosperity or in adversity, on the assumption that not only
does a man in adversity need people to confer benefits on him, but
also those who are prospering need people to do well by. Surely it
is strange, too, to make the supremely happy man a solitary; for no
one would choose the whole world on condition of being alone, since
man is a political creature and one whose nature is to live with others.
Therefore even the happy man lives with others; for he has the things
that are by nature good. And plainly it is better to spend his days
with friends and good men than with strangers or any chance persons.
Therefore the happy man needs friends.

What then is it that the first school means, and in what respect is
it right? Is it that most identify friends with useful people? Of
such friends indeed the supremely happy man will have no need, since
he already has the things that are good; nor will he need those whom
one makes one’s friends because of their pleasantness, or he will
need them only to a small extent (for his life, being pleasant, has
no need of adventitious pleasure); and because he does not need such
friends he is thought not to need friends.

But that is surely not true. For we have said at the outset that happiness
is an activity; and activity plainly comes into being and is not present
at the start like a piece of property. If (1) happiness lies in living
and being active, and the good man’s activity is virtuous and pleasant
in itself, as we have said at the outset, and (2) a thing’s being
one’s own is one of the attributes that make it pleasant, and (3)
we can contemplate our neighbours better than ourselves and their
actions better than our own, and if the actions of virtuous men who
are their friends are pleasant to good men (since these have both
the attributes that are naturally pleasant),-if this be so, the supremely
happy man will need friends of this sort, since his purpose is to
contemplate worthy actions and actions that are his own, and the actions
of a good man who is his friend have both these qualities.

Further, men think that the happy man ought to live pleasantly. Now
if he were a solitary, life would be hard for him; for by oneself
it is not easy to be continuously active; but with others and towards
others it is easier. With others therefore his activity will be more
continuous, and it is in itself pleasant, as it ought to be for the
man who is supremely happy; for a good man qua good delights in virtuous
actions and is vexed at vicious ones, as a musical man enjoys beautiful
tunes but is pained at bad ones. A certain training in virtue arises
also from the company of the good, as Theognis has said before us.

If we look deeper into the nature of things, a virtuous friend seems
to be naturally desirable for a virtuous man. For that which is good
by nature, we have said, is for the virtuous man good and pleasant
in itself. Now life is defined in the case of animals by the power
of perception in that of man by the power of perception or thought;
and a power is defined by reference to the corresponding activity,
which is the essential thing; therefore life seems to be essentially
the act of perceiving or thinking. And life is among the things that
are good and pleasant in themselves, since it is determinate and the
determinate is of the nature of the good; and that which is good by
nature is also good for the virtuous man (which is the reason why
life seems pleasant to all men); but we must not apply this to a wicked
and corrupt life nor to a life spent in pain; for such a life is indeterminate,
as are its attributes. The nature of pain will become plainer in what
follows. But if life itself is good and pleasant (which it seems to
be, from the very fact that all men desire it, and particularly those
who are good and supremely happy; for to such men life is most desirable,
and their existence is the most supremely happy) and if he who sees
perceives that he sees, and he who hears, that he hears, and he who
walks, that he walks, and in the case of all other activities similarly
there is something which perceives that we are active, so that if
we perceive, we perceive that we perceive, and if we think, that we
think; and if to perceive that we perceive or think is to perceive
that we exist (for existence was defined as perceiving or thinking);
and if perceiving that one lives is in itself one of the things that
are pleasant (for life is by nature good, and to perceive what is
good present in oneself is pleasant); and if life is desirable, and
particularly so for good men, because to them existence is good and
pleasant for they are pleased at the consciousness of the presence
in them of what is in itself good); and if as the virtuous man is
to himself, he is to his friend also (for his friend is another self):-if
all this be true, as his own being is desirable for each man, so,
or almost so, is that of his friend. Now his being was seen to be
desirable because he perceived his own goodness, and such perception
is pleasant in itself. He needs, therefore, to be conscious of the
existence of his friend as well, and this will be realized in their
living together and sharing in discussion and thought; for this is
what living together would seem to mean in the case of man, and not,
as in the case of cattle, feeding in the same place.

If, then, being is in itself desirable for the supremely happy man
(since it is by its nature good and pleasant), and that of his friend
is very much the same, a friend will be one of the things that are
desirable. Now that which is desirable for him he must have, or he
will be deficient in this respect. The man who is to be happy will
therefore need virtuous friends.

10

Should we, then, make as many friends as possible, or-as in the case
of hospitality it is thought to be suitable advice, that one should
be ‘neither a man of many guests nor a man with none’-will that apply
to friendship as well; should a man neither be friendless nor have
an excessive number of friends?

To friends made with a view to utility this saying would seem thoroughly
applicable; for to do services to many people in return is a laborious
task and life is not long enough for its performance. Therefore friends
in excess of those who are sufficient for our own life are superfluous,
and hindrances to the noble life; so that we have no need of them.
Of friends made with a view to pleasure, also, few are enough, as
a little seasoning in food is enough.

But as regards good friends, should we have as many as possible, or
is there a limit to the number of one’s friends, as there is to the
size of a city? You cannot make a city of ten men, and if there are
a hundred thousand it is a city no longer. But the proper number is
presumably not a single number, but anything that falls between certain
fixed points. So for friends too there is a fixed number perhaps the
largest number with whom one can live together (for that, we found,
thought to be very characteristic of friendship); and that one cannot
live with many people and divide oneself up among them is plain. Further,
they too must be friends of one another, if they are all to spend
their days together; and it is a hard business for this condition
to be fulfilled with a large number. It is found difficult, too, to
rejoice and to grieve in an intimate way with many people, for it
may likely happen that one has at once to be happy with one friend
and to mourn with another. Presumably, then, it is well not to seek
to have as many friends as possible, but as many as are enough for
the purpose of living together; for it would seem actually impossible
to be a great friend to many people. This is why one cannot love several
people; love is ideally a sort of excess of friendship, and that can
only be felt towards one person; therefore great friendship too can
only be felt towards a few people. This seems to be confirmed in practice;
for we do not find many people who are friends in the comradely way
of friendship, and the famous friendships of this sort are always
between two people. Those who have many friends and mix intimately
with them all are thought to be no one’s friend, except in the way
proper to fellow-citizens, and such people are also called obsequious.
In the way proper to fellow-citizens, indeed, it is possible to be
the friend of many and yet not be obsequious but a genuinely good
man; but one cannot have with many people the friendship based on
virtue and on the character of our friends themselves, and we must
be content if we find even a few such.

11

Do we need friends more in good fortune or in bad? They are sought
after in both; for while men in adversity need help, in prosperity
they need people to live with and to make the objects of their beneficence;
for they wish to do well by others. Friendship, then, is more necessary
in bad fortune, and so it is useful friends that one wants in this
case; but it is more noble in good fortune, and so we also seek for
good men as our friends, since it is more desirable to confer benefits
on these and to live with these. For the very presence of friends
is pleasant both in good fortune and also in bad, since grief is lightened
when friends sorrow with us. Hence one might ask whether they share
as it were our burden, or-without that happening-their presence by
its pleasantness, and the thought of their grieving with us, make
our pain less. Whether it is for these reasons or for some other that
our grief is lightened, is a question that may be dismissed; at all
events what we have described appears to take place.

But their presence seems to contain a mixture of various factors.
The very seeing of one’s friends is pleasant, especially if one is
in adversity, and becomes a safeguard against grief (for a friend
tends to comfort us both by the sight of him and by his words, if
he is tactful, since he knows our character and the things that please
or pain us); but to see him pained at our misfortunes is painful;
for every one shuns being a cause of pain to his friends. For this
reason people of a manly nature guard against making their friends
grieve with them, and, unless he be exceptionally insensible to pain,
such a man cannot stand the pain that ensues for his friends, and
in general does not admit fellow-mourners because he is not himself
given to mourning; but women and womanly men enjoy sympathisers in
their grief, and love them as friends and companions in sorrow. But
in all things one obviously ought to imitate the better type of person.

On the other hand, the presence of friends in our prosperity implies
both a pleasant passing of our time and the pleasant thought of their
pleasure at our own good fortune. For this cause it would seem that
we ought to summon our friends readily to share our good fortunes
(for the beneficent character is a noble one), but summon them to
our bad fortunes with hesitation; for we ought to give them as little
a share as possible in our evils whence the saying ‘enough is my misfortune’.
We should summon friends to us most of all when they are likely by
suffering a few inconveniences to do us a great service.

Conversely, it is fitting to go unasked and readily to the aid of
those in adversity (for it is characteristic of a friend to render
services, and especially to those who are in need and have not demanded
them; such action is nobler and pleasanter for both persons); but
when our friends are prosperous we should join readily in their activities
(for they need friends for these too), but be tardy in coming forward
to be the objects of their kindness; for it is not noble to be keen
to receive benefits. Still, we must no doubt avoid getting the reputation
of kill-joys by repulsing them; for that sometimes happens.

The presence of friends, then, seems desirable in all circumstances.

12

Does it not follow, then, that, as for lovers the sight of the beloved
is the thing they love most, and they prefer this sense to the others
because on it love depends most for its being and for its origin,
so for friends the most desirable thing is living together? For friendship
is a partnership, and as a man is to himself, so is he to his friend;
now in his own case the consciousness of his being is desirable, and
so therefore is the consciousness of his friend’s being, and the activity
of this consciousness is produced when they live together, so that
it is natural that they aim at this. And whatever existence means
for each class of men, whatever it is for whose sake they value life,
in that they wish to occupy themselves with their friends; and so
some drink together, others dice together, others join in athletic
exercises and hunting, or in the study of philosophy, each class spending
their days together in whatever they love most in life; for since
they wish to live with their friends, they do and share in those things
which give them the sense of living together. Thus the friendship
of bad men turns out an evil thing (for because of their instability
they unite in bad pursuits, and besides they become evil by becoming
like each other), while the friendship of good men is good, being
augmented by their companionship; and they are thought to become better
too by their activities and by improving each other; for from each
other they take the mould of the characteristics they approve-whence
the saying ‘noble deeds from noble men’.-So much, then, for friendship;
our next task must be to discuss pleasure.

Book X Eudaimonia and the case against pleasure

BOOK X

1

After these matters we ought perhaps next to discuss pleasure. For
it is thought to be most intimately connected with our human nature,
which is the reason why in educating the young we steer them by the
rudders of pleasure and pain; it is thought, too, that to enjoy the
things we ought and to hate the things we ought has the greatest bearing
on virtue of character. For these things extend right through life,
with a weight and power of their own in respect both to virtue and
to the happy life, since men choose what is pleasant and avoid what
is painful; and such things, it will be thought, we should least of
all omit to discuss, especially since they admit of much dispute.
For some say pleasure is the good, while others, on the contrary,
say it is thoroughly bad-some no doubt being persuaded that the facts
are so, and others thinking it has a better effect on our life to
exhibit pleasure as a bad thing even if it is not; for most people
(they think) incline towards it and are the slaves of their pleasures,
for which reason they ought to lead them in the opposite direction,
since thus they will reach the middle state. But surely this is not
correct. For arguments about matters concerned with feelings and actions
are less reliable than facts: and so when they clash with the facts
of perception they are despised, and discredit the truth as well;
if a man who runs down pleasure is once seen to be alming at it, his
inclining towards it is thought to imply that it is all worthy of
being aimed at; for most people are not good at drawing distinctions.
True arguments seem, then, most useful, not only with a view to knowledge,
but with a view to life also; for since they harmonize with the facts
they are believed, and so they stimulate those who understand them
to live according to them.-Enough of such questions; let us proceed
to review the opinions that have been expressed about pleasure.

2

Eudoxus thought pleasure was the good because he saw all things, both
rational and irrational, aiming at it, and because in all things that
which is the object of choice is what is excellent, and that which
is most the object of choice the greatest good; thus the fact that
all things moved towards the same object indicated that this was for
all things the chief good (for each thing, he argued, finds its own
good, as it finds its own nourishment); and that which is good for
all things and at which all aim was the good. His arguments were credited
more because of the excellence of his character than for their own
sake; he was thought to be remarkably self-controlled, and therefore
it was thought that he was not saying what he did say as a friend
of pleasure, but that the facts really were so. He believed that the
same conclusion followed no less plainly from a study of the contrary
of pleasure; pain was in itself an object of aversion to all things,
and therefore its contrary must be similarly an object of choice.
And again that is most an object of choice which we choose not because
or for the sake of something else, and pleasure is admittedly of this
nature; for no one asks to what end he is pleased, thus implying that
pleasure is in itself an object of choice. Further, he argued that
pleasure when added to any good, e.g. to just or temperate action,
makes it more worthy of choice, and that it is only by itself that
the good can be increased.

This argument seems to show it to be one of the goods, and no more
a good than any other; for every good is more worthy of choice along
with another good than taken alone. And so it is by an argument of
this kind that Plato proves the good not to be pleasure; he argues
that the pleasant life is more desirable with wisdom than without,
and that if the mixture is better, pleasure is not the good; for the
good cannot become more desirable by the addition of anything to it.
Now it is clear that nothing else, any more than pleasure, can be
the good if it is made more desirable by the addition of any of the
things that are good in themselves. What, then, is there that satisfies
this criterion, which at the same time we can participate in? It is
something of this sort that we are looking for. Those who object that
that at which all things aim is not necessarily good are, we may surmise,
talking nonsense. For we say that that which every one thinks really
is so; and the man who attacks this belief will hardly have anything
more credible to maintain instead. If it is senseless creatures that
desire the things in question, there might be something in what they
say; but if intelligent creatures do so as well, what sense can there
be in this view? But perhaps even in inferior creatures there is some
natural good stronger than themselves which aims at their proper good.

Nor does the argument about the contrary of pleasure seem to be correct.
They say that if pain is an evil it does not follow that pleasure
is a good; for evil is opposed to evil and at the same time both are
opposed to the neutral state-which is correct enough but does not
apply to the things in question. For if both pleasure and pain belonged
to the class of evils they ought both to be objects of aversion, while
if they belonged to the class of neutrals neither should be an object
of aversion or they should both be equally so; but in fact people
evidently avoid the one as evil and choose the other as good; that
then must be the nature of the opposition between them.

3

Nor again, if pleasure is not a quality, does it follow that it is
not a good; for the activities of virtue are not qualities either,
nor is happiness. They say, however, that the good is determinate,
while pleasure is indeterminate, because it admits of degrees. Now
if it is from the feeling of pleasure that they judge thus, the same
will be true of justice and the other virtues, in respect of which
we plainly say that people of a certain character are so more or less,
and act more or less in accordance with these virtues; for people
may be more just or brave, and it is possible also to act justly or
temperately more or less. But if their judgement is based on the various
pleasures, surely they are not stating the real cause, if in fact
some pleasures are unmixed and others mixed. Again, just as health
admits of degrees without being indeterminate, why should not pleasure?
The same proportion is not found in all things, nor a single proportion
always in the same thing, but it may be relaxed and yet persist up
to a point, and it may differ in degree. The case of pleasure also
may therefore be of this kind.

Again, they assume that the good is perfect while movements and comings
into being are imperfect, and try to exhibit pleasure as being a movement
and a coming into being. But they do not seem to be right even in
saying that it is a movement. For speed and slowness are thought to
be proper to every movement, and if a movement, e.g. that of the heavens,
has not speed or slowness in itself, it has it in relation to something
else; but of pleasure neither of these things is true. For while we
may become pleased quickly as we may become angry quickly, we cannot
be pleased quickly, not even in relation to some one else, while we
can walk, or grow, or the like, quickly. While, then, we can change
quickly or slowly into a state of pleasure, we cannot quickly exhibit
the activity of pleasure, i.e. be pleased. Again, how can it be a
coming into being? It is not thought that any chance thing can come
out of any chance thing, but that a thing is dissolved into that out
of which it comes into being; and pain would be the destruction of
that of which pleasure is the coming into being.

They say, too, that pain is the lack of that which is according to
nature, and pleasure is replenishment. But these experiences are bodily.
If then pleasure is replenishment with that which is according to
nature, that which feels pleasure will be that in which the replenishment
takes place, i.e. the body; but that is not thought to be the case;
therefore the replenishment is not pleasure, though one would be pleased
when replenishment was taking place, just as one would be pained if
one was being operated on. This opinion seems to be based on the pains
and pleasures connected with nutrition; on the fact that when people
have been short of food and have felt pain beforehand they are pleased
by the replenishment. But this does not happen with all pleasures;
for the pleasures of learning and, among the sensuous pleasures, those
of smell, and also many sounds and sights, and memories and hopes,
do not presuppose pain. Of what then will these be the coming into
being? There has not been lack of anything of which they could be
the supplying anew.

In reply to those who bring forward the disgraceful pleasures one
may say that these are not pleasant; if things are pleasant to people
of vicious constitution, we must not suppose that they are also pleasant
to others than these, just as we do not reason so about the things
that are wholesome or sweet or bitter to sick people, or ascribe whiteness
to the things that seem white to those suffering from a disease of
the eye. Or one might answer thus-that the pleasures are desirable,
but not from these sources, as wealth is desirable, but not as the
reward of betrayal, and health, but not at the cost of eating anything
and everything. Or perhaps pleasures differ in kind; for those derived
from noble sources are different from those derived from base sources,
and one cannot the pleasure of the just man without being just, nor
that of the musical man without being musical, and so on.

The fact, too, that a friend is different from a flatterer seems to
make it plain that pleasure is not a good or that pleasures are different
in kind; for the one is thought to consort with us with a view to
the good, the other with a view to our pleasure, and the one is reproached
for his conduct while the other is praised on the ground that he consorts
with us for different ends. And no one would choose to live with the
intellect of a child throughout his life, however much he were to
be pleased at the things that children are pleased at, nor to get
enjoyment by doing some most disgraceful deed, though he were never
to feel any pain in consequence. And there are many things we should
be keen about even if they brought no pleasure, e.g. seeing, remembering,
knowing, possessing the virtues. If pleasures necessarily do accompany
these, that makes no odds; we should choose these even if no pleasure
resulted. It seems to be clear, then, that neither is pleasure the
good nor is all pleasure desirable, and that some pleasures are desirable
in themselves, differing in kind or in their sources from the others.
So much for the things that are said about pleasure and pain.

4

What pleasure is, or what kind of thing it is, will become plainer
if we take up the question aga from the beginning. Seeing seems to
be at any moment complete, for it does not lack anything which coming
into being later will complete its form; and pleasure also seems to
be of this nature. For it is a whole, and at no time can one find
a pleasure whose form will be completed if the pleasure lasts longer.
For this reason, too, it is not a movement. For every movement (e.g.
that of building) takes time and is for the sake of an end, and is
complete when it has made what it aims at. It is complete, therefore,
only in the whole time or at that final moment. In their parts and
during the time they occupy, all movements are incomplete, and are
different in kind from the whole movement and from each other. For
the fitting together of the stones is different from the fluting of
the column, and these are both different from the making of the temple;
and the making of the temple is complete (for it lacks nothing with
a view to the end proposed), but the making of the base or of the
triglyph is incomplete; for each is the making of only a part. They
differ in kind, then, and it is not possible to find at any and every
time a movement complete in form, but if at all, only in the whole
time. So, too, in the case of walking and all other movements. For
if locomotion is a movement from to there, it, too, has differences
in kind-flying, walking, leaping, and so on. And not only so, but
in walking itself there are such differences; for the whence and whither
are not the same in the whole racecourse and in a part of it, nor
in one part and in another, nor is it the same thing to traverse this
line and that; for one traverses not only a line but one which is
in a place, and this one is in a different place from that. We have
discussed movement with precision in another work, but it seems that
it is not complete at any and every time, but that the many movements
are incomplete and different in kind, since the whence and whither
give them their form. But of pleasure the form is complete at any
and every time. Plainly, then, pleasure and movement must be different
from each other, and pleasure must be one of the things that are whole
and complete. This would seem to be the case, too, from the fact that
it is not possible to move otherwise than in time, but it is possible
to be pleased; for that which takes place in a moment is a whole.

From these considerations it is clear, too, that these thinkers are
not right in saying there is a movement or a coming into being of
pleasure. For these cannot be ascribed to all things, but only to
those that are divisible and not wholes; there is no coming into being
of seeing nor of a point nor of a unit, nor is any of these a movement
or coming into being; therefore there is no movement or coming into
being of pleasure either; for it is a whole.

Since every sense is active in relation to its object, and a sense
which is in good condition acts perfectly in relation to the most
beautiful of its objects (for perfect activity seems to be ideally
of this nature; whether we say that it is active, or the organ in
which it resides, may be assumed to be immaterial), it follows that
in the case of each sense the best activity is that of the best-conditioned
organ in relation to the finest of its objects. And this activity
will be the most complete and pleasant. For, while there is pleasure
in respect of any sense, and in respect of thought and contemplation
no less, the most complete is pleasantest, and that of a well-conditioned
organ in relation to the worthiest of its objects is the most complete;
and the pleasure completes the activity. But the pleasure does not
complete it in the same way as the combination of object and sense,
both good, just as health and the doctor are not in the same way the
cause of a man’s being healthy. (That pleasure is produced in respect
to each sense is plain; for we speak of sights and sounds as pleasant.
It is also plain that it arises most of all when both the sense is
at its best and it is active in reference to an object which corresponds;
when both object and perceiver are of the best there will always be
pleasure, since the requisite agent and patient are both present.)
Pleasure completes the activity not as the corresponding permanent
state does, by its immanence, but as an end which supervenes as the
bloom of youth does on those in the flower of their age. So long,
then, as both the intelligible or sensible object and the discriminating
or contemplative faculty are as they should be, the pleasure will
be involved in the activity; for when both the passive and the active
factor are unchanged and are related to each other in the same way,
the same result naturally follows.

How, then, is it that no one is continuously pleased? Is it that we
grow weary? Certainly all human beings are incapable of continuous
activity. Therefore pleasure also is not continuous; for it accompanies
activity. Some things delight us when they are new, but later do so
less, for the same reason; for at first the mind is in a state of
stimulation and intensely active about them, as people are with respect
to their vision when they look hard at a thing, but afterwards our
activity is not of this kind, but has grown relaxed; for which reason
the pleasure also is dulled.

One might think that all men desire pleasure because they all aim
at life; life is an activity, and each man is active about those things
and with those faculties that he loves most; e.g. the musician is
active with his hearing in reference to tunes, the student with his
mind in reference to theoretical questions, and so on in each case;
now pleasure completes the activities, and therefore life, which they
desire. It is with good reason, then, that they aim at pleasure too,
since for every one it completes life, which is desirable. But whether
we choose life for the sake of pleasure or pleasure for the sake of
life is a question we may dismiss for the present. For they seem to
be bound up together and not to admit of separation, since without
activity pleasure does not arise, and every activity is completed
by the attendant pleasure.

5

For this reason pleasures seem, too, to differ in kind. For things
different in kind are, we think, completed by different things (we
see this to be true both of natural objects and of things produced
by art, e.g. animals, trees, a painting, a sculpture, a house, an
implement); and, similarly, we think that activities differing in
kind are completed by things differing in kind. Now the activities
of thought differ from those of the senses, and both differ among
themselves, in kind; so, therefore, do the pleasures that complete
them.

This may be seen, too, from the fact that each of the pleasures is
bound up with the activity it completes. For an activity is intensified
by its proper pleasure, since each class of things is better judged
of and brought to precision by those who engage in the activity with
pleasure; e.g. it is those who enjoy geometrical thinking that become
geometers and grasp the various propositions better, and, similarly,
those who are fond of music or of building, and so on, make progress
in their proper function by enjoying it; so the pleasures intensify
the activities, and what intensifies a thing is proper to it, but
things different in kind have properties different in kind.

This will be even more apparent from the fact that activities are
hindered by pleasures arising from other sources. For people who are
fond of playing the flute are incapable of attending to arguments
if they overhear some one playing the flute, since they enjoy flute-playing
more than the activity in hand; so the pleasure connected with fluteplaying
destroys the activity concerned with argument. This happens, similarly,
in all other cases, when one is active about two things at once; the
more pleasant activity drives out the other, and if it is much more
pleasant does so all the more, so that one even ceases from the other.
This is why when we enjoy anything very much we do not throw ourselves
into anything else, and do one thing only when we are not much pleased
by another; e.g. in the theatre the people who eat sweets do so most
when the actors are poor. Now since activities are made precise and
more enduring and better by their proper pleasure, and injured by
alien pleasures, evidently the two kinds of pleasure are far apart.
For alien pleasures do pretty much what proper pains do, since activities
are destroyed by their proper pains; e.g. if a man finds writing or
doing sums unpleasant and painful, he does not write, or does not
do sums, because the activity is painful. So an activity suffers contrary
effects from its proper pleasures and pains, i.e. from those that
supervene on it in virtue of its own nature. And alien pleasures have
been stated to do much the same as pain; they destroy the activity,
only not to the same degree.

Now since activities differ in respect of goodness and badness, and
some are worthy to be chosen, others to be avoided, and others neutral,
so, too, are the pleasures; for to each activity there is a proper
pleasure. The pleasure proper to a worthy activity is good and that
proper to an unworthy activity bad; just as the appetites for noble
objects are laudable, those for base objects culpable. But the pleasures
involved in activities are more proper to them than the desires; for
the latter are separated both in time and in nature, while the former
are close to the activities, and so hard to distinguish from them
that it admits of dispute whether the activity is not the same as
the pleasure. (Still, pleasure does not seem to be thought or perception-that
would be strange; but because they are not found apart they appear
to some people the same.) As activities are different, then, so are
the corresponding pleasures. Now sight is superior to touch in purity,
and hearing and smell to taste; the pleasures, therefore, are similarly
superior, and those of thought superior to these, and within each
of the two kinds some are superior to others.

Each animal is thought to have a proper pleasure, as it has a proper
function; viz. that which corresponds to its activity. If we survey
them species by species, too, this will be evident; horse, dog, and
man have different pleasures, as Heraclitus says ‘asses would prefer
sweepings to gold’; for food is pleasanter than gold to asses. So
the pleasures of creatures different in kind differ in kind, and it
is plausible to suppose that those of a single species do not differ.
But they vary to no small extent, in the case of men at least; the
same things delight some people and pain others, and are painful and
odious to some, and pleasant to and liked by others. This happens,
too, in the case of sweet things; the same things do not seem sweet
to a man in a fever and a healthy man-nor hot to a weak man and one
in good condition. The same happens in other cases. But in all such
matters that which appears to the good man is thought to be really
so. If this is correct, as it seems to be, and virtue and the good
man as such are the measure of each thing, those also will be pleasures
which appear so to him, and those things pleasant which he enjoys.
If the things he finds tiresome seem pleasant to some one, that is
nothing surprising; for men may be ruined and spoilt in many ways;
but the things are not pleasant, but only pleasant to these people
and to people in this condition. Those which are admittedly disgraceful
plainly should not be said to be pleasures, except to a perverted
taste; but of those that are thought to be good what kind of pleasure
or what pleasure should be said to be that proper to man? Is it not
plain from the corresponding activities? The pleasures follow these.
Whether, then, the perfect and supremely happy man has one or more
activities, the pleasures that perfect these will be said in the strict
sense to be pleasures proper to man, and the rest will be so in a
secondary and fractional way, as are the activities.

6

Now that we have spoken of the virtues, the forms of friendship, and
the varieties of pleasure, what remains is to discuss in outline the
nature of happiness, since this is what we state the end of human
nature to be. Our discussion will be the more concise if we first
sum up what we have said already. We said, then, that it is not a
disposition; for if it were it might belong to some one who was asleep
throughout his life, living the life of a plant, or, again, to some
one who was suffering the greatest misfortunes. If these implications
are unacceptable, and we must rather class happiness as an activity,
as we have said before, and if some activities are necessary, and
desirable for the sake of something else, while others are so in themselves,
evidently happiness must be placed among those desirable in themselves,
not among those desirable for the sake of something else; for happiness
does not lack anything, but is self-sufficient. Now those activities
are desirable in themselves from which nothing is sought beyond the
activity. And of this nature virtuous actions are thought to be; for
to do noble and good deeds is a thing desirable for its own sake.

Pleasant amusements also are thought to be of this nature; we choose
them not for the sake of other things; for we are injured rather than
benefited by them, since we are led to neglect our bodies and our
property. But most of the people who are deemed happy take refuge
in such pastimes, which is the reason why those who are ready-witted
at them are highly esteemed at the courts of tyrants; they make themselves
pleasant companions in the tyrants’ favourite pursuits, and that is
the sort of man they want. Now these things are thought to be of the
nature of happiness because people in despotic positions spend their
leisure in them, but perhaps such people prove nothing; for virtue
and reason, from which good activities flow, do not depend on despotic
position; nor, if these people, who have never tasted pure and generous
pleasure, take refuge in the bodily pleasures, should these for that
reason be thought more desirable; for boys, too, think the things
that are valued among themselves are the best. It is to be expected,
then, that, as different things seem valuable to boys and to men,
so they should to bad men and to good. Now, as we have often maintained,
those things are both valuable and pleasant which are such to the
good man; and to each man the activity in accordance with his own
disposition is most desirable, and, therefore, to the good man that
which is in accordance with virtue. Happiness, therefore, does not
lie in amusement; it would, indeed, be strange if the end were amusement,
and one were to take trouble and suffer hardship all one’s life in
order to amuse oneself. For, in a word, everything that we choose
we choose for the sake of something else-except happiness, which is
an end. Now to exert oneself and work for the sake of amusement seems
silly and utterly childish. But to amuse oneself in order that one
may exert oneself, as Anacharsis puts it, seems right; for amusement
is a sort of relaxation, and we need relaxation because we cannot
work continuously. Relaxation, then, is not an end; for it is taken
for the sake of activity.

The happy life is thought to be virtuous; now a virtuous life requires
exertion, and does not consist in amusement. And we say that serious
things are better than laughable things and those connected with amusement,
and that the activity of the better of any two things-whether it be
two elements of our being or two men-is the more serious; but the
activity of the better is ipso facto superior and more of the nature
of happiness. And any chance person-even a slave-can enjoy the bodily
pleasures no less than the best man; but no one assigns to a slave
a share in happiness-unless he assigns to him also a share in human
life. For happiness does not lie in such occupations, but, as we have
said before, in virtuous activities.

7

If happiness is activity in accordance with virtue, it is reasonable
that it should be in accordance with the highest virtue; and this
will be that of the best thing in us. Whether it be reason or something
else that is this element which is thought to be our natural ruler
and guide and to take thought of things noble and divine, whether
it be itself also divine or only the most divine element in us, the
activity of this in accordance with its proper virtue will be perfect
happiness. That this activity is contemplative we have already said.

Now this would seem to be in agreement both with what we said before
and with the truth. For, firstly, this activity is the best (since
not only is reason the best thing in us, but the objects of reason
are the best of knowable objects); and secondly, it is the most continuous,
since we can contemplate truth more continuously than we can do anything.
And we think happiness has pleasure mingled with it, but the activity
of philosophic wisdom is admittedly the pleasantest of virtuous activities;
at all events the pursuit of it is thought to offer pleasures marvellous
for their purity and their enduringness, and it is to be expected
that those who know will pass their time more pleasantly than those
who inquire. And the self-sufficiency that is spoken of must belong
most to the contemplative activity. For while a philosopher, as well
as a just man or one possessing any other virtue, needs the necessaries
of life, when they are sufficiently equipped with things of that sort
the just man needs people towards whom and with whom he shall act
justly, and the temperate man, the brave man, and each of the others
is in the same case, but the philosopher, even when by himself, can
contemplate truth, and the better the wiser he is; he can perhaps
do so better if he has fellow-workers, but still he is the most self-sufficient.
And this activity alone would seem to be loved for its own sake; for
nothing arises from it apart from the contemplating, while from practical
activities we gain more or less apart from the action. And happiness
is thought to depend on leisure; for we are busy that we may have
leisure, and make war that we may live in peace. Now the activity
of the practical virtues is exhibited in political or military affairs,
but the actions concerned with these seem to be unleisurely. Warlike
actions are completely so (for no one chooses to be at war, or provokes
war, for the sake of being at war; any one would seem absolutely murderous
if he were to make enemies of his friends in order to bring about
battle and slaughter); but the action of the statesman is also unleisurely,
and-apart from the political action itself-aims at despotic power
and honours, or at all events happiness, for him and his fellow citizens-a
happiness different from political action, and evidently sought as
being different. So if among virtuous actions political and military
actions are distinguished by nobility and greatness, and these are
unleisurely and aim at an end and are not desirable for their own
sake, but the activity of reason, which is contemplative, seems both
to be superior in serious worth and to aim at no end beyond itself,
and to have its pleasure proper to itself (and this augments the activity),
and the self-sufficiency, leisureliness, unweariedness (so far as
this is possible for man), and all the other attributes ascribed to
the supremely happy man are evidently those connected with this activity,
it follows that this will be the complete happiness of man, if it
be allowed a complete term of life (for none of the attributes of
happiness is incomplete).

But such a life would be too high for man; for it is not in so far
as he is man that he will live so, but in so far as something divine
is present in him; and by so much as this is superior to our composite
nature is its activity superior to that which is the exercise of the
other kind of virtue. If reason is divine, then, in comparison with
man, the life according to it is divine in comparison with human life.
But we must not follow those who advise us, being men, to think of
human things, and, being mortal, of mortal things, but must, so far
as we can, make ourselves immortal, and strain every nerve to live
in accordance with the best thing in us; for even if it be small in
bulk, much more does it in power and worth surpass everything. This
would seem, too, to be each man himself, since it is the authoritative
and better part of him. It would be strange, then, if he were to choose
not the life of his self but that of something else. And what we said
before’ will apply now; that which is proper to each thing is by nature
best and most pleasant for each thing; for man, therefore, the life
according to reason is best and pleasantest, since reason more than
anything else is man. This life therefore is also the happiest.

8

But in a secondary degree the life in accordance with the other kind
of virtue is happy; for the activities in accordance with this befit
our human estate. Just and brave acts, and other virtuous acts, we
do in relation to each other, observing our respective duties with
regard to contracts and services and all manner of actions and with
regard to passions; and all of these seem to be typically human. Some
of them seem even to arise from the body, and virtue of character
to be in many ways bound up with the passions. Practical wisdom, too,
is linked to virtue of character, and this to practical wisdom, since
the principles of practical wisdom are in accordance with the moral
virtues and rightness in morals is in accordance with practical wisdom.
Being connected with the passions also, the moral virtues must belong
to our composite nature; and the virtues of our composite nature are
human; so, therefore, are the life and the happiness which correspond
to these. The excellence of the reason is a thing apart; we must be
content to say this much about it, for to describe it precisely is
a task greater than our purpose requires. It would seem, however,
also to need external equipment but little, or less than moral virtue
does. Grant that both need the necessaries, and do so equally, even
if the statesman’s work is the more concerned with the body and things
of that sort; for there will be little difference there; but in what
they need for the exercise of their activities there will be much
difference. The liberal man will need money for the doing of his liberal
deeds, and the just man too will need it for the returning of services
(for wishes are hard to discern, and even people who are not just
pretend to wish to act justly); and the brave man will need power
if he is to accomplish any of the acts that correspond to his virtue,
and the temperate man will need opportunity; for how else is either
he or any of the others to be recognized? It is debated, too, whether
the will or the deed is more essential to virtue, which is assumed
to involve both; it is surely clear that its perfection involves both;
but for deeds many things are needed, and more, the greater and nobler
the deeds are. But the man who is contemplating the truth needs no
such thing, at least with a view to the exercise of his activity;
indeed they are, one may say, even hindrances, at all events to his
contemplation; but in so far as he is a man and lives with a number
of people, he chooses to do virtuous acts; he will therefore need
such aids to living a human life.

But that perfect happiness is a contemplative activity will appear
from the following consideration as well. We assume the gods to be
above all other beings blessed and happy; but what sort of actions
must we assign to them? Acts of justice? Will not the gods seem absurd
if they make contracts and return deposits, and so on? Acts of a brave
man, then, confronting dangers and running risks because it is noble
to do so? Or liberal acts? To whom will they give? It will be strange
if they are really to have money or anything of the kind. And what
would their temperate acts be? Is not such praise tasteless, since
they have no bad appetites? If we were to run through them all, the
circumstances of action would be found trivial and unworthy of gods.
Still, every one supposes that they live and therefore that they are
active; we cannot suppose them to sleep like Endymion. Now if you
take away from a living being action, and still more production, what
is left but contemplation? Therefore the activity of God, which surpasses
all others in blessedness, must be contemplative; and of human activities,
therefore, that which is most akin to this must be most of the nature
of happiness.

This is indicated, too, by the fact that the other animals have no
share in happiness, being completely deprived of such activity. For
while the whole life of the gods is blessed, and that of men too in
so far as some likeness of such activity belongs to them, none of
the other animals is happy, since they in no way share in contemplation.
Happiness extends, then, just so far as contemplation does, and those
to whom contemplation more fully belongs are more truly happy, not
as a mere concomitant but in virtue of the contemplation; for this
is in itself precious. Happiness, therefore, must be some form of
contemplation.

But, being a man, one will also need external prosperity; for our
nature is not self-sufficient for the purpose of contemplation, but
our body also must be healthy and must have food and other attention.
Still, we must not think that the man who is to be happy will need
many things or great things, merely because he cannot be supremely
happy without external goods; for self-sufficiency and action do not
involve excess, and we can do noble acts without ruling earth and
sea; for even with moderate advantages one can act virtuously (this
is manifest enough; for private persons are thought to do worthy acts
no less than despots-indeed even more); and it is enough that we should
have so much as that; for the life of the man who is active in accordance
with virtue will be happy. Solon, too, was perhaps sketching well
the happy man when he described him as moderately furnished with externals
but as having done (as Solon thought) the noblest acts, and lived
temperately; for one can with but moderate possessions do what one
ought. Anaxagoras also seems to have supposed the happy man not to
be rich nor a despot, when he said that he would not be surprised
if the happy man were to seem to most people a strange person; for
they judge by externals, since these are all they perceive. The opinions
of the wise seem, then, to harmonize with our arguments. But while
even such things carry some conviction, the truth in practical matters
is discerned from the facts of life; for these are the decisive factor.
We must therefore survey what we have already said, bringing it to
the test of the facts of life, and if it harmonizes with the facts
we must accept it, but if it clashes with them we must suppose it
to be mere theory. Now he who exercises his reason and cultivates
it seems to be both in the best state of mind and most dear to the
gods. For if the gods have any care for human affairs, as they are
thought to have, it would be reasonable both that they should delight
in that which was best and most akin to them (i.e. reason) and that
they should reward those who love and honour this most, as caring
for the things that are dear to them and acting both rightly and nobly.
And that all these attributes belong most of all to the philosopher
is manifest. He, therefore, is the dearest to the gods. And he who
is that will presumably be also the happiest; so that in this way
too the philosopher will more than any other be happy.

9

If these matters and the virtues, and also friendship and pleasure,
have been dealt with sufficiently in outline, are we to suppose that
our programme has reached its end? Surely, as the saying goes, where
there are things to be done the end is not to survey and recognize
the various things, but rather to do them; with regard to virtue,
then, it is not enough to know, but we must try to have and use it,
or try any other way there may be of becoming good. Now if arguments
were in themselves enough to make men good, they would justly, as
Theognis says, have won very great rewards, and such rewards should
have been provided; but as things are, while they seem to have power
to encourage and stimulate the generous-minded among our youth, and
to make a character which is gently born, and a true lover of what
is noble, ready to be possessed by virtue, they are not able to encourage
the many to nobility and goodness. For these do not by nature obey
the sense of shame, but only fear, and do not abstain from bad acts
because of their baseness but through fear of punishment; living by
passion they pursue their own pleasures and the means to them, and
and the opposite pains, and have not even a conception of what is
noble and truly pleasant, since they have never tasted it. What argument
would remould such people? It is hard, if not impossible, to remove
by argument the traits that have long since been incorporated in the
character; and perhaps we must be content if, when all the influences
by which we are thought to become good are present, we get some tincture
of virtue.

Now some think that we are made good by nature, others by habituation,
others by teaching. Nature’s part evidently does not depend on us,
but as a result of some divine causes is present in those who are
truly fortunate; while argument and teaching, we may suspect, are
not powerful with all men, but the soul of the student must first
have been cultivated by means of habits for noble joy and noble hatred,
like earth which is to nourish the seed. For he who lives as passion
directs will not hear argument that dissuades him, nor understand
it if he does; and how can we persuade one in such a state to change
his ways? And in general passion seems to yield not to argument but
to force. The character, then, must somehow be there already with
a kinship to virtue, loving what is noble and hating what is base.

But it is difficult to get from youth up a right training for virtue
if one has not been brought up under right laws; for to live temperately
and hardily is not pleasant to most people, especially when they are
young. For this reason their nurture and occupations should be fixed
by law; for they will not be painful when they have become customary.
But it is surely not enough that when they are young they should get
the right nurture and attention; since they must, even when they are
grown up, practise and be habituated to them, we shall need laws for
this as well, and generally speaking to cover the whole of life; for
most people obey necessity rather than argument, and punishments rather
than the sense of what is noble.

This is why some think that legislators ought to stimulate men to
virtue and urge them forward by the motive of the noble, on the assumption
that those who have been well advanced by the formation of habits
will attend to such influences; and that punishments and penalties
should be imposed on those who disobey and are of inferior nature,
while the incurably bad should be completely banished. A good man
(they think), since he lives with his mind fixed on what is noble,
will submit to argument, while a bad man, whose desire is for pleasure,
is corrected by pain like a beast of burden. This is, too, why they
say the pains inflicted should be those that are most opposed to the
pleasures such men love.

However that may be, if (as we have said) the man who is to be good
must be well trained and habituated, and go on to spend his time in
worthy occupations and neither willingly nor unwillingly do bad actions,
and if this can be brought about if men live in accordance with a
sort of reason and right order, provided this has force,-if this be
so, the paternal command indeed has not the required force or compulsive
power (nor in general has the command of one man, unless he be a king
or something similar), but the law has compulsive power, while it
is at the same time a rule proceeding from a sort of practical wisdom
and reason. And while people hate men who oppose their impulses, even
if they oppose them rightly, the law in its ordaining of what is good
is not burdensome.

In the Spartan state alone, or almost alone, the legislator seems
to have paid attention to questions of nurture and occupations; in
most states such matters have been neglected, and each man lives as
he pleases, Cyclops-fashion, ‘to his own wife and children dealing
law’. Now it is best that there should be a public and proper care
for such matters; but if they are neglected by the community it would
seem right for each man to help his children and friends towards virtue,
and that they should have the power, or at least the will, to do this.

It would seem from what has been said that he can do this better if
he makes himself capable of legislating. For public control is plainly
effected by laws, and good control by good laws; whether written or
unwritten would seem to make no difference, nor whether they are laws
providing for the education of individuals or of groups-any more than
it does in the case of music or gymnastics and other such pursuits.
For as in cities laws and prevailing types of character have force,
so in households do the injunctions and the habits of the father,
and these have even more because of the tie of blood and the benefits
he confers; for the children start with a natural affection and disposition
to obey. Further, private education has an advantage over public,
as private medical treatment has; for while in general rest and abstinence
from food are good for a man in a fever, for a particular man they
may not be; and a boxer presumably does not prescribe the same style
of fighting to all his pupils. It would seem, then, that the detail
is worked out with more precision if the control is private; for each
person is more likely to get what suits his case.

But the details can be best looked after, one by one, by a doctor
or gymnastic instructor or any one else who has the general knowledge
of what is good for every one or for people of a certain kind (for
the sciences both are said to be, and are, concerned with what is
universal); not but what some particular detail may perhaps be well
looked after by an unscientific person, if he has studied accurately
in the light of experience what happens in each case, just as some
people seem to be their own best doctors, though they could give no
help to any one else. None the less, it will perhaps be agreed that
if a man does wish to become master of an art or science he must go
to the universal, and come to know it as well as possible; for, as
we have said, it is with this that the sciences are concerned.

And surely he who wants to make men, whether many or few, better by
his care must try to become capable of legislating, if it is through
laws that we can become good. For to get any one whatever-any one
who is put before us-into the right condition is not for the first
chance comer; if any one can do it, it is the man who knows, just
as in medicine and all other matters which give scope for care and
prudence.

Must we not, then, next examine whence or how one can learn how to
legislate? Is it, as in all other cases, from statesmen? Certainly
it was thought to be a part of statesmanship. Or is a difference apparent
between statesmanship and the other sciences and arts? In the others
the same people are found offering to teach the arts and practising
them, e.g. doctors or painters; but while the sophists profess to
teach politics, it is practised not by any of them but by the politicians,
who would seem to do so by dint of a certain skill and experience
rather than of thought; for they are not found either writing or speaking
about such matters (though it were a nobler occupation perhaps than
composing speeches for the law-courts and the assembly), nor again
are they found to have made statesmen of their own sons or any other
of their friends. But it was to be expected that they should if they
could; for there is nothing better than such a skill that they could
have left to their cities, or could prefer to have for themselves,
or, therefore, for those dearest to them. Still, experience seems
to contribute not a little; else they could not have become politicians
by familiarity with politics; and so it seems that those who aim at
knowing about the art of politics need experience as well.

But those of the sophists who profess the art seem to be very far
from teaching it. For, to put the matter generally, they do not even
know what kind of thing it is nor what kinds of things it is about;
otherwise they would not have classed it as identical with rhetoric
or even inferior to it, nor have thought it easy to legislate by collecting
the laws that are thought well of; they say it is possible to select
the best laws, as though even the selection did not demand intelligence
and as though right judgement were not the greatest thing, as in matters
of music. For while people experienced in any department judge rightly
the works produced in it, and understand by what means or how they
are achieved, and what harmonizes with what, the inexperienced must
be content if they do not fail to see whether the work has been well
or ill made-as in the case of painting. Now laws are as it were the’
works’ of the political art; how then can one learn from them to be
a legislator, or judge which are best? Even medical men do not seem
to be made by a study of text-books. Yet people try, at any rate,
to state not only the treatments, but also how particular classes
of people can be cured and should be treated-distinguishing the various
habits of body; but while this seems useful to experienced people,
to the inexperienced it is valueless. Surely, then, while collections
of laws, and of constitutions also, may be serviceable to those who
can study them and judge what is good or bad and what enactments suit
what circumstances, those who go through such collections without
a practised faculty will not have right judgement (unless it be as
a spontaneous gift of nature), though they may perhaps become more
intelligent in such matters.

Now our predecessors have left the subject of legislation to us unexamined;
it is perhaps best, therefore, that we should ourselves study it,
and in general study the question of the constitution, in order to
complete to the best of our ability our philosophy of human nature.
First, then, if anything has been said well in detail by earlier thinkers,
let us try to review it; then in the light of the constitutions we
have collected let us study what sorts of influence preserve and destroy
states, and what sorts preserve or destroy the particular kinds of
constitution, and to what causes it is due that some are well and
others ill administered. When these have been studied we shall perhaps
be more likely to see with a comprehensive view, which constitution
is best, and how each must be ordered, and what laws and customs it
must use, if it is to be at its best. Let us make a beginning of our
discussion.

THE END

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