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1. The Demand Curve

2. Firms and Households: The Basic Decision-Making Units Firm transforms resources (inputs) into products (outputs). Firms are the primary producing units in a market economy. entrepreneur A person who organises, manages, and assumes the risks of a firm, taking a new idea or a new product and turning it into a successful business. households The consumer units in an economy

3. Demand in Product/Output Markets A household’s decision about what quantity of a particular output, or product, to demand depends on a number of factors, including: • The price of the product in question. • The income available to the household. • The household’s amount of accumulated wealth. • The prices of other products available to the household. • The household’s tastes and preferences. • The household’s expectations about future income, wealth, and prices.

4. Demand in Product/Output Markets quantity demanded The amount (number of units) of a product that a household would buy in a given period if it could buy all it wanted at the current market price.

5. Demand in Product/Output Markets Changes in Quantity Demanded versus Changes in Demand The most important relationship in individual markets is that between market price and quantity demanded. Changes in the price of a product affect the quantity demanded per period. Changes in any other factor, such as income or preferences, affect demand. Economists say that an increase in the price of petrol is likely to cause a decrease in the quantity of petrol demanded. However, we say that an increase in income is likely to cause an increase in the demand for most goods.

6. Demand in Product/Output Markets Price and Quantity Demanded: The Law of Demand demand schedule A table showing how much of a given product a household would be willing to buy at different prices. demand curve A graph illustrating how much of a given product a household would be willing to buy at different prices.

7. Demand in Product/Output Markets Price and Quantity Demanded: The Law of Demand Julie’s Demand Curve The relationship between price (P) and quantity demanded (Q) presented graphically is called a demand curve. Demand curves have a negative slope, indicating that lower prices cause quantity demanded to increase. Julie’s demand curve is plotted here; demand in product markets is determined by household choice. Julie’s Demand Schedule for Telephone Calls Price (Per Call) Quantity Demanded (Calls Per Month) £ 0 30 .50 25 3.50 7 7.00 3 10.00 1 15.00 0

8. Demand in Product/Output Markets Price and Quantity Demanded: The Law of Demand Demand Curves Slope Downward law of demand The negative relationship between price and quantity demanded: As price rises, quantity demanded decreases; as price falls, quantity demanded increases. Generally we expect quantity demanded to fall when price rises, ceteris paribus, and to expect quantity demanded to rise when price falls, ceteris paribus. Demand curves have a negative slope.

9. Demand in Product/Output Markets Price and Quantity Demanded: The Law of Demand Other Properties of Demand Curves Two additional things are notable about Julie’s demand curve. As long as households have limited incomes and wealth, all demand curves will intersect the price axis. For any commodity, there is always a price above which a household will not or cannot pay. Even if the good or service is very important, all households are ultimately constrained, or limited, by income and wealth. That demand curves intersect the quantity axis is a matter of common sense. Demand in a given period of time is limited, if only by time, even at a zero price.

10. Demand in Product/Output Markets Price and Quantity Demanded: The Law of Demand Other Properties of Demand Curves To summarise what we know about the shape of demand curves: • They have a negative slope. An increase in price is likely to lead to a decrease in quantity demanded, and a decrease in price is likely to lead to an increase in quantity demanded. • They intersect the quantity (X-) axis, a result of time limitations and diminishing marginal utility. • They intersect the price (Y-) axis, a result of limited incomes and wealth.

11. Demand in Product/Output Markets Other Determinants of Household Demand Income And Wealth income The sum of all a household’s wages, salaries, profits, interest payments, rents, and other forms of earnings in a given period of time. It is a flow measure. wealth or net worth The total value of what a household owns minus what it owes. It is a stock measure.

12. Demand in Product/Output Markets Other Determinants of Household Demand Income And Wealth normal goods Goods for which demand goes up when income is higher and for which demand goes down when income is lower. inferior goods Goods for which demand tends to fall when income rises.

13. Demand in Product/Output Markets Other Determinants of Household Demand Prices of Other Goods and Services substitutes Goods that can serve as replacements for one another; when the price of one increases, demand for the other increases. perfect substitutes Identical products complements, complementary goods Goods that are bought together; a decrease in the price of one results in an increase in demand for the other and vice versa.

14. Demand in Product/Output Markets Other Determinants of Household Demand Tastes and Preferences Income, wealth, and prices of goods available are the three factors that determine the combinations of goods and services that a household is able to buy. Changes in preferences can and do manifest themselves in market behaviour. Within the constraints of prices and incomes, preference shapes the demand curve, but it is difficult to generalise about tastes and preferences. First, they are volatile. Second, tastes are subject to whim and fancy.

15. Demand in Product/Output Markets Other Determinants of Household Demand Expectations There are many examples of the ways expectations affect demand. Increasingly, economic theory has come to recognise the importance of expectations. It is important to understand that demand depends on more than just current incomes, prices, and tastes. It is rational to but now if we expect prices to go up (as happens with panic buying following rumours of shortages).

16. Demand in Product/Output Markets Shift of Demand versus Movement Along a Demand Curve Shift of a Demand Curve Following a Rise in Income When the price of a good changes, we move along the demand curve for that good. When any other factor that influences demand changes (income, tastes, and so on), the relationship between price and quantity is different; there is a shift of the demand curve, in this case from D0 to D1. Telephone calls are normal goods. Shift of Julie’s Demand Schedule Due to increase in Income Schedule D0 Schedule D1 Price (Per Call) Quantity Demanded (Calls Per Month at an Income of £300 Per Month) Quantity Demanded (Calls Per Month at an Income of £600 Per Month) £ 0.00 30 35 0.50 25 33 3.50 7 18 7.00 3 12 10.00 1 7 15.00 0 2 20.00 0 0

17. Demand in Product/Output Markets Shift of Demand versus Movement Along a Demand Curve shift of a demand curve The change that takes place in a demand curve due to a new relationship between quantity demanded of a good and price of that good. The shift is brought about by a change in any of the influences other than price of the good itself. movement along a demand curve The change in quantity demanded brought about by a change in price. Change in price of a good or service leads to: Change in quantity demanded (movement along the demand curve). Change in income, preferences, or prices of other goods or services leads to: Change in demand (shift of the demand curve).

18. Demand in Product/Output Markets Shift of Demand versus Movement Along a Demand Curve Shifts versus Movement Along a Demand Curve When income increases, the demand for inferior goods (hamburgers) shifts to the left and the demand for normal goods (steak) shifts to the right.

19. Demand in Product/Output Markets Shifts versus Movement Along a Demand Curve (continued) If the price of hamburger rises, the quantity of hamburger demanded declines— this is a movement along the demand curve. The same price rise for hamburger would shift the demand for chicken (a substitute for hamburgers) to the right and the demand for ketchup (a complement to hamburgers) to the left. .

20. Demand in Product/Output Markets From Household Demand To Market Demand market demand The sum of all the quantities of a good or service demanded per period by all the households buying in the market for that good or service.

21. Key terms • demand curve • demand schedule • entrepreneur • equilibrium • excess demand or shortage • excess supply or surplus • inferior goods • law of demand • market demand • movement along a demand curve • normal goods • perfect substitutes • quantity demanded • shift of a demand curve • substitutes