1. Externalities and Public Goods

2. Externalities, Public Goods, and Social Choice market failure Occurs when resources are misallocated or allocated inefficiently. Externalities externality A cost or benefit imposed on, or enjoyed by an individual or a group that is outside, or external to, the transaction.

3. Externalities and Environmental Economics Marginal Social Cost and Marginal-Cost Pricing marginal social cost (MSC) The total cost to society of producing an additional unit of a good or service. MSC is equal to the sum of the marginal costs of producing the product and measures the true cost – internal and external – of the process of production.

4. Externalities and Environmental Economics Marginal Social Cost and Marginal-Cost Pricing Profit-Maximizing Perfectly Competitive Firms Will Produce Up to the Point That Price Equals Marginal Cost (P = MC) If we assume that the current price reflects what consumers are willing to pay for a product at the margin, firms that create external costs without weighing them in their decisions are likely to produce too much. At q*, marginal social cost exceeds the price paid by consumers.

5. Externalities and Environmental Economics Marginal Social Cost and Marginal-Cost Pricing Acid Rain and the Clean Air Act Acid rain is an excellent example of an externality and of the issues and conflicts involved in dealing with externalities. The case of acid rain highlights the fact that efficiency analysis ignores the distribution of gains and losses. To establish efficiency, we need only demonstrate that the total value of the gains exceeds the total value of the losses. But when UK acid rain lands on Sweden, the Swedish bear the cost. The costs are borne unequally.

6. Externalities and Environmental Economics Marginal Social Cost and Marginal-Cost Pricing Other Externalities Other examples of external effects are all around us. When people drive their cars into the city at rush hour, they contribute to the congestion and impose costs (in the form of lost time and posionous emissions) on others. The most significant and hotly debated issue of externalities is global warming.

7. Externalities and Environmental Economics Marginal Social Cost and Marginal-Cost Pricing Some Examples of Positive Externalities Externalities can also be positive benefits. When other people or firms engage in an activity, there are benefits from that activity enjoyed by people outside of the immediate activity. From an economics perspective, there are problems with positive externalities as well. The problem with positive externalities is that the individuals in charge have too little incentive to engage in the activity because someone is providing it for nothing.

8. Externalities and Environmental Economics Private Choices and External Effects Externalities in a Village The marginal benefits to Harry exceed the marginal costs he must bear to play his stereo system for a period of up to 8 hours. When the stereo is playing, a cost is being imposed on his next door neighbour, Jake. When we add the costs borne by Harry to the damage costs imposed on Jake, we get the full cost of the stereo to the two-person village made up of Harry and Jake. Playing the stereo more than 5 hours is inefficient because the benefits to Harry are less than the social cost for every hour above 5. If Harry considers only his private costs, he will play the stereo for too long a time from society’s point of view.

9. Externalities and Environmental Economics Private Choices and External Effects marginal private cost (MPC) The amount that a consumer pays to consume an additional unit of a particular good. marginal damage cost (MDC) The additional harm (external cost) done by increasing the level of an activity by 1 unit. If a pesticide pollutes the water in a river, MDC is the additional cost imposed by the added pollution that results from increasing output by 1 unit of pesticide per period.

10. Externalities and Environmental Economics Internalising Externalities Five approaches have been taken to solving the problem of externalities: 1. government imposed taxes and subsidies, 2. private bargaining and negotiation, 3. legal rules, 4. sale or auctioning of rights to impose externalities, 5. direct government regulation. While each is best suited for a different set of circumstances, all five provide decision makers with an incentive to weigh the external effects of their decisions. An example of (4) is carbon permit trading.

11. Externalities and Environmental Economics Internalising Externalities – Taxes and Subsidies Tax Imposed on a Firm Equal to Marginal Damage Cost If a per-unit tax exactly equal to marginal damage costs is imposed on a firm, the firm will weigh the tax, and thus the damage costs, in its decisions. At the new equilibrium price, P1, consumers will be paying an amount sufficient to cover full resource costs as well as the cost of damage imposed. The efficient level of output for the firm is q1.

12. Externalities and Environmental Economics Internalising Externalities Taxes and Subsidies Measuring Damages: The biggest problem with using taxes and subsidies is that damages must be estimated in financial terms. Example: how do we cost the effects of acid rain on Swedish foresters?

13. Externalities and Environmental Economics Internalising Externalities Taxes and Subsidies Reducing Damages to an Efficient Level: Taxes also provide firms with an incentive to use the most efficient technology for dealing with damage. The Incentive to Take Care and to Avoid Harm: You should understand that all externalities involve at least two parties and that it is not always clear which party is “causing” the damage.

14. Externalities and Environmental Economics Internalising Externalities Bargaining and Negotiation Coase theorem Under certain conditions, when externalities are present, private parties can arrive at the efficient solution without government involvement. Legal Rules and Procedures injunction A court order forbidding the continuation of behavior that leads to damages. liability rules Laws that require A to compensate B for damages imposed.

15. Externalities and Environmental Economics Internalising Externalities Selling or Auctioning Pollution Rights TABLE 16.1 Permit Trading £ Firm A Firm A Firm A Firm B Firm B Firm B Reduction of pollution by Firm A (in units of pollution) MC of reducing pollution for Firm A TC of reducing pollution for Firm A Reduction of pollution by Firm B (in units of pollution) MC of reducing pollution for Firm B TC of reducing pollution for Firm B 1 5 5 1 8 8 2 7 12 2 14 22 3 9 21 3 23 45 4 12 33 4 35 80 5 17 50 5 50 130

16. Externalities and Environmental Economics Internalising Externalities Direct Regulation of Externalities The Debate Over Global Warming: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty on global warming negotiated by the United Nations in the 1997. It came into force after it was ratified by Russia in February 2005. A total of 141 countries have ratified the agreement, which commits them to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases or to engage in emissions trading. The United States refused to ratify the treaty.

17. Public (Social) Goods Income Distribution as a Public Good? Note that some economists have argued for redistribution of income on grounds that it generates public benefits. If we accept the idea that redistributing income generates a public good, private endeavours may fail to do what we want them to do, and government involvement may be called for.

18. Public (Social) Goods Public Provision of Public Goods All societies, past and present, have had to face the problem of providing public goods. When members of society get together to form a government, they do so to provide themselves with goods and services that will not be provided if they act separately. This forms part of Social Contract Theory – a theory of Government originating with Jean- Jacques Rousseau in the C18th.

19. Public (Social) Goods Optimal Provision of Public Goods Economist Paul Samuelson demonstrated that there exists an optimal, or a most efficient, level of output for every public good. Samuelson’s Theory An efficient economy produces what people want. Private producers, whether perfect competitors or monopolists, are constrained by the market demand for their products. If they cannot sell their products for more than it costs to produce them, they will be out of business. Because private goods permit exclusion, firms can withhold their products until households pay. Buying a product at a posted price reveals that it is “worth” at least that amount to you and to everyone who buys it.

20. Public (Social) Goods Optimal Provision of Public Goods – Samuelson’s Theory With Private Goods, Consumers Decide What Quantity to Buy; Market Demand Is the Sum of Those Quantities at Each Price: At a price of £3, A buys 2 units and B buys 9 for a total of 11. At a price of £1, A buys 9 units and B buys 13 for a total of 22. We all buy the quantity of each private good that we want. Market demand is the horizontal sum of all individual demand curves.

21. Public (Social) Goods Optimal Provision of Public Goods – Samuelson’s Theory With Public Goods, There Is Only One Level of Output and Consumers Are Willing to Pay Different Amounts for Each Level A is willing to pay £6 per unit for X1 units of the public good. B is willing to pay only £3 for X1 units. Society—in this case A and B—is willing to pay a total of £9 for X1 units of the good. Because only one level of output can be chosen for a public good, we must add A’s contribution to B’s to determine market demand. This means adding demand curves vertically.

22. Public (Social) Goods Optimal Provision of Public Goods – Samuelson’s Theory Optimal Production of a Public Good Optimal production of a public good means producing as long as society’s total willingness to pay per unit (DA+B) is greater than the marginal cost of producing the good.

23. Public (Social) Goods Optimal Provision of Public Goods Samuelson’s Theory optimal level of provision for public goods The level at which society’s total willingness to pay per unit is equal to the marginal cost of producing the good. The Problems of Optimal Provision One major problem exists. To produce the optimal amount of each public good, the government must know something that it cannot possibly know— everyone’s preferences.

24. Social Choice Government Inefficiency: Theory of Public Choice Looking at the public sector from the standpoint of the behaviour of public officials and the potential for inefficient choices and bureaucratic waste rather than in terms of its potential for improving the allocation of resources has become quite popular. This is the viewpoint of what is called the public choice field in economics that builds heavily on the work of Nobel laureate James Buchanan.

25. Social Choice Rent-Seeking Revisited A monopolist would be willing to pay to prevent competition from eroding its economic profits. Many—if not all—industries lobby for favourable treatment, softer regulation, or antitrust exemption. This we call rent-seeking. Theory may suggest that unregulated markets fail to produce an efficient allocation of resources. This should not lead you to the conclusion that government involvement necessarily leads to efficiency. There are reasons to believe that government attempts to produce the right goods and services in the right quantities efficiently may fail.

26. Government and the Market There is no question that government must be involved in both the provision of public goods and the control of externalities. The question is not whether we need government involvement. The question is how much and what kind of government involvement we should have.

27. Key Terms • externality • free-rider problem • marginal damage cost (MDC) • marginal private cost (MPC) • marginal social cost (MSC) • market failure • mixed goods • non-excludable • non-rival in consumption • optimal level of provision for public goods • public goods (social or collective goods) • social choice